<p><b>Before the Steeples Fall</b></p><p>Facility Management (FM) techniques applied to churches, with emphasis on the churches of the Diocese of Møre</p><p><i>The church is a building old and tall,</i></p><p><i>Standing though steeples are falling.</i></p><p><i>Fell into ruins steeples all,</i></p><p><i>Bells are still chiming and calling…</i></p><p><i>N. F. S. Grundtvig, 1837</i></p><p>This hymn describes the churches as old tumbledown buildings, and throughout history many churches have suffered this fate. On the other hand, few buildings have received as much attention and care as the churches. In the year 1024, the assembly of Moster decided that the King was to be responsible for providing the priests while the people were to maintain the churches. Since then, the building and maintenance of the parish church has been the largest task of the Norwegian local community, at least until the last part of the 19.th century.</p><p>What is the state of our churches today? How do we manage them through their life cycle before the <i>steeples</i> fall? And how should we best take care of them to avoid letting them fall into a state of decay and disrepair? The Facility Management (FM) project – and this dissertation – discusses these questions </p>

<p>Masonry made from Light Expanded Clay Aggregate (LECA) concrete blocks is by far the most popular manufactured masonry in Norway. LECA is a lightweight aggregate (LWA).</p><p>The main objective of this study is to expand the knowledge about the material properties of LECA masonry to enable more accurate structural analysis and design of such masonry. The thesis comprises largely of experimental studies on the material behaviour of LECA masonry. Due to the relatively limited knowledge on the material properties of LECA masonry compared to that of concrete, a wide range of properties of LECA masonry has been studied in this thesis. </p><p>Because restrained shrinkage cracking is a major cause of damage to LECA masonry, mapping the behaviour of masonry with obstructed shrinkage is selected as an example. To be able to determine the deformation process of restrained LECA masonry, an identification of material properties of particular interest has been carried out. The identification was based on a restrained shrinkage cracking example. A summary of the material properties studied in this thesis work is given in Table 1. For comparison, design values of Eurocode 6 are also included in Table 1.</p><p>By determining a relatively wide range of important material properties, this thesis study has been largely instrumental in expanding the knowledge about the material behaviour of LECA masonry. While also the composition and the properties of the raw materials of the LECA blocks are documented, the study may form an important basis for further structural analysis of performance and further development of such masonry.</p><p>Even though a restrain shrinkage example was taken as a basis for the identification of interesting material properties, the experimentally obtained properties is relevant also for application of other structural problems. The validity of the properties is, however, limited to the LECA block quality of “3/770” only.</p><p>In order to pave the way for finite element analysis and design of LECA masonry structures, experimental determination of relevant material/model parameters were carried out in this thesis study. A micro-modelling can be restricted to account for the quasi-brittle material behaviour of the LECA and the average in-situ properties of the applied mortar. By applying generic material models in DIANA, the current test of LECA masonry subjected to uniaxial tension and compression/shear, this approach gave satisfactory results (see Høiseth and Kvande (2000) and Høiseth (2000b)).</p><p>Although the average stiffness and strength of mortal is usually somewhat higher than for the LECA units, a macro-modelling based on the LECA block properties should in general give sufficiently accurate results in global analysis of real structures. It must however be emphasised that the open perpend joint of LECA masonry makes the compound behaviour highly anisotropic. This anomaly represents discontinuity planes, which may be accounted for by interface elements representing predefined discrete cracks. </p>

<p>Research on freeze-thaw resistance of concrete in general and on curing and moisture conditions in particular is motivated from an economic and product sustainability point of view. Specifically, it is argued for the importance of considering the effect of curing and test exposure conditions on the moisture uptake and performance during freeze-thaw. Due to the demonstrated importance of moisture conditions on performance, they should be related to those of field service conditions when choosing a test procedure in a particular case. This is vital for adequate testing of new</p><p>and more sustainable concrete materials.</p>

Masonry made from Light Expanded Clay Aggregate (LECA) concrete blocks is by far the most popular manufactured masonry in Norway. LECA is a lightweight aggregate (LWA). The main objective of this study is to expand the knowledge about the material properties of LECA masonry to enable more accurate structural analysis and design of such masonry. The thesis comprises largely of experimental studies on the material behaviour of LECA masonry. Due to the relatively limited knowledge on the material properties of LECA masonry compared to that of concrete, a wide range of properties of LECA masonry has been studied in this thesis. Because restrained shrinkage cracking is a major cause of damage to LECA masonry, mapping the behaviour of masonry with obstructed shrinkage is selected as an example. To be able to determine the deformation process of restrained LECA masonry, an identification of material properties of particular interest has been carried out. The identification was based on a restrained shrinkage cracking example. A summary of the material properties studied in this thesis work is given in Table 1. For comparison, design values of Eurocode 6 are also included in Table 1. By determining a relatively wide range of important material properties, this thesis study has been largely instrumental in expanding the knowledge about the material behaviour of LECA masonry. While also the composition and the properties of the raw materials of the LECA blocks are documented, the study may form an important basis for further structural analysis of performance and further development of such masonry. Even though a restrain shrinkage example was taken as a basis for the identification of interesting material properties, the experimentally obtained properties is relevant also for application of other structural problems. The validity of the properties is, however, limited to the LECA block quality of “3/770” only. In order to pave the way for finite element analysis and design of LECA masonry structures, experimental determination of relevant material/model parameters were carried out in this thesis study. A micro-modelling can be restricted to account for the quasi-brittle material behaviour of the LECA and the average in-situ properties of the applied mortar. By applying generic material models in DIANA, the current test of LECA masonry subjected to uniaxial tension and compression/shear, this approach gave satisfactory results (see Høiseth and Kvande (2000) and Høiseth (2000b)). Although the average stiffness and strength of mortal is usually somewhat higher than for the LECA units, a macro-modelling based on the LECA block properties should in general give sufficiently accurate results in global analysis of real structures. It must however be emphasised that the open perpend joint of LECA masonry makes the compound behaviour highly anisotropic. This anomaly represents discontinuity planes, which may be accounted for by interface elements representing predefined discrete cracks.

Research on freeze-thaw resistance of concrete in general and on curing and moisture conditions in particular is motivated from an economic and product sustainability point of view. Specifically, it is argued for the importance of considering the effect of curing and test exposure conditions on the moisture uptake and performance during freeze-thaw. Due to the demonstrated importance of moisture conditions on performance, they should be related to those of field service conditions when choosing a test procedure in a particular case. This is vital for adequate testing of new and more sustainable concrete materials.

<b>Before the Steeples Fall</b> Facility Management (FM) techniques applied to churches, with emphasis on the churches of the Diocese of Møre The church is a building old and tall, Standing though steeples are falling. Fell into ruins steeples all, Bells are still chiming and calling… N. F. S. Grundtvig, 1837 This hymn describes the churches as old tumbledown buildings, and throughout history many churches have suffered this fate. On the other hand, few buildings have received as much attention and care as the churches. In the year 1024, the assembly of Moster decided that the King was to be responsible for providing the priests while the people were to maintain the churches. Since then, the building and maintenance of the parish church has been the largest task of the Norwegian local community, at least until the last part of the 19.th century. What is the state of our churches today? How do we manage them through their life cycle before the steeples fall? And how should we best take care of them to avoid letting them fall into a state of decay and disrepair? The Facility Management (FM) project – and this dissertation – discusses these questions

Simple but still realistic physical models suitable for structural design of flat concrete plates and column footings with respect to punching are presented. Punching of a flat plate is assumed to occur when the concrete compression strain at the column edge due to the bending moment in the slab reaches a critical value that is considerably lower than the generally accepted ultimate compression strain 0.0035 for one-way structures loaded in bending. In compact slabs such as column footings the compression strength of the inclined strut from the load to the column is governing instead. Both the strain limit and the inclined stress limit display a size-effect, i.e. the limit values decrease with increasing depth of the compression zone in the slab. Due respect is also paid to increasing concrete brittleness with increasing compression strength. The influence of the bending moment means that flat plates with rectangular panels display a lower punching capacity than flat plates with square panels – a case that is not recognized by current design codes. As a consequence, punching shall be checked for each of the two reinforcement directions separately if the bending moments differ. Since the theory can predict the punching load as well as the ultimate deflection of test specimens with good precision, it can also treat the case where a bending moment, so called unbalanced moment, is transferred from the slab to the column. This opens up for a safer design than with the prevailing method. It is proposed that the column rotation in relation to the slab shall be checked instead of the unbalanced moment for both gravity loading and imposed story drift due to lateral loads. However, the risk for punching failure is a great disadvantage with flat plates. The failure is brittle and occurs without warning in the form of extensive concrete cracking and increased deflection. Punching at one column may even initiate punching at adjacent columns as well, which would cause progressive collapse of the total structure. A novel reinforcement concept is therefore presented that gives flat plates a very ductile behaviour, which eliminates the risk for punching failure. The performance is verified by tests with monotonic as well as cyclic loading. / QC 20100929

Grouting as a method of strengthening and sealing rock, soil and concrete is widely used. The possibilities of sealing structures are of great importance from both an economical and environmental point of view. The cost of grouting has in certain projects been as high as the cost for the blasting and excavation of the tunnel. To improve the technique of grouting with cement based material, it is necessary to focus on the properties of the used grout mixture. The ability of a grout to penetrate cavities, channels and porous material, the penetrability, depends on two things, the theology and the filtration tendency. Extensive laboratory tests on stable, low w/c-ratio, injection grouts show that the most significant limitation to their penetrability is the tendency of cement grains to agglomerate into an impermeable filter cake. The properties of a grout that may prevent passing obstructions in the flow path without the cement grains clogging and preventing further penetration is in this work called filtration tendency. An inert material mixture and a cement-based mixture are used for the investigations in this work. The inert material, which is crushed dolomite stone, does not react with the added water in the mixture. The used cement grouts are based upon three types of commercial available Portland cements and four Portland cements with modified grain size distribution curves. Performed tests show that the grain size and grain size distribution is of great importance for the filtration tendency. According to performed experiments with inert and cement material, it seems to be advantageous for the penetrability to have a grain size distribution that contains neither too many fine or coarse grains. It is reasonable to believe that the grain size distribution should be relatively steep (narrow grain size range) between minimum and maximum grain size. The maximum grain size is of importance in terms of for example d95. Too large maximum grain size will prevent penetration of the mixture through obstructions in the flow path. According to performed tests, the value of d95, should be between 4-10 times smaller than the aperture to be penetrated by the cement based mixture. The small grain sizes are also of importance in order to achieve a low filtration tendency of the grout. This is because of the increased tendency for the small grains to flocculation into larger agglomerates, compared to larger grain sizes. The filtration experiments with cement based grouts show that influences of parameters like surface chemistry (use of superplastisisers) and cement chemistry (hydration of cement grains) will strongly affect the filtration tendency of the mixture. To visualize the phenomenon of filtration tendency it can be investigated on a larger scale than usually takes place. Filtration experiments in the scale of approximately 100:1 have been performed in order to see influences of grain concentration, grain shape and the penetrated slot aperture. It can be seen that used grain sizes (monodisperse and inert mixture) should be approximately at least 2-3 times smaller than the aperture to be penetrated by the mixture. Numerical experiments of filtration tendency have also been performed to investigate the possibilities to numerically simulate the influence of grain concentration and slot aperture. The numerical experiments are based on Eulerian flow modelling. / QC 20101007

The built environment usually constitutes a very important part of the real capital of a nation, and the construction sector represents more than 10% of the yearly Gross National Product of the industrialised world. Good planning of all construction is important, and consideration of the service life of the work is of great interest and is a significant aspect of sustainability considerations. The need for more knowledge about degradation of materials, for structured methodology, and for working tools for those involved in the planning process, has resulted in an extensive effort in pre-normative research and standardisation regarding this field. This thesis presents a discussion on service life planning and the role of the Factor Method in such work, and especially, discussion of modification and development of the methodology. In the design process, the need to evaluate the service life of products is a great challenge, as the results will depend on both material properties and the environment in which the material is placed or used. A practical solution has to be based on a good knowledge in the field, but also on a sound working strategy, to ensure that different design scenarios can be compared in a standardised or structured way. The Factor Method is a promising working tool for such an evaluation and comparison, but is as such, still more of a methodology, than a method. Examples of the use of the methodology are still very limited, and the method as such, is much discussed by researchers. However, its future will depend upon how practical it will be to apply in use. The method is useful to estimate the service life of products, based on a known reference service life and a number of modifying factors. These factors in turn depend on the conditional differences between the specific project and the reference, in-use conditions. This thesis discusses the required precision of such a methodology, especially in light of inherent distributions in material properties, and the fact that the consequences of failure are often very limited. In such cases, the standardised Factor Method is considered to be quite useful, and should give the parties involved a good means for working in a structured and systematic way. / QC 20101019

Betongkonstruktioner behöver vara armerade för att klara de belastningar som de utsätts för. Speciellt om de är exponerade i väldig korrosivaggressiv miljö kan komplikationer som sprickbildning i betong och rostning av armering ske. För att undvika att detta sker krävs ett tjockt täckskikt av en mycket god betongstandard. Det är inte alltid möjligt eftersom det ofta krävs att konstruktionerna är tunna och då räcker inte det minskade täckskiktet som skydd. Armeringen måste då skyddas mot rost på andra sätt. Exempel på metoder som kan användas är epoxibeläggning, rostskyddsmålning, varmförzinkning samt rostfritt material. Målet med arbetet är att jämföra dessa metoder. Beroende på olika aspekter, främst ekonomi är de olika metoderna mer eller mindre lämpade. Varmförzinkning är den metod som är bäst ur de flesta aspekterna. Men om man vill ha den absolut bästa korrosionsbeständiga lösningen bör man redan i konstruktionsstadiet bestämma sig för att använda rostfritt stål till armeringen. Rostfritt ger en lång nästan underhållsfri livslängd. Nackdelen här är att det är väldigt dyrt och ännu inte så vanligt hos armeringstillverkare i Sverige. När det gäller epoxibeläggning av armering så förekommer det inte längre i så stor utsträckning. Det beror främst på de stora skador som har påvisats. Rostskyddsmålning är fortfarande ett användbart alternativ men här bör arbetskostnaderna beaktas. Valet av rostskydd måste övervägas utifrån samtliga intressanta aspekter. Allt beroende på bland annat ekonomi, miljöklass och livslängd.