Les travaux présentés ont pour objectif la valorisation de déchets industriels riches en carbonates pour la préparation de gels phosphocalciques. Ces gels sont destinés à des applications environnementales. Leur synthèse est basée sur la réaction des carbonates de calcium avec une solution de phosphates solubles à température ambiante et à pression atmosphérique. Le procédé élaboré à l’échelle laboratoire consiste à additionner les réactifs en variant les paramètres expérimentaux tels que le Ca/P, la température et la dilution. Cette méthode a été utilisée pour la synthèse de gels à partir de deux types de déchets industriels. Une synthèse de référence a été définie à base de carbonates de calcium purs. Dans la première partie de ce travail, une caractérisation physico-chimique et thermique des poudres synthétisées a été réalisée par différentes techniques telles que le Microscopie Electronique à Balayage (MEB), la diffraction des rayons X (XRD), la spectroscopie infrarouge à transformée de Fourier (FTIR) et la thermogravimétrie. Les résultats obtenus ont montré la formation de précurseurs de Ca-HAp qui évoluent de phosphates de calcium monocalciques à des particules de Ca-HAp amorphe. Une chronologie de cette évolution a été mise en évidence pour les carbonates de calcium purs et confirmée pour les carbonates de calcium issus des déchets industriels. La transformation des carbonates de calcium a été étudiée en réalisant un bilan massique basé sur la consommation des carbonates de calcium. Ce bilan, réalisé à température ambiante, a confirmé un taux de conversion à plus de 90% pour les carbonates de calcium purs, jusqu’à 70% des carbonates issus du premier type de déchet et 50% des carbonates correspondant au deuxième type de déchet. L’influence de certains paramètres expérimentaux s’est avérée primordiale pour l’amélioration de ce taux de conversion et particulièrement l’augmentation de la température. Dans la deuxième partie de ce travail, les propriétés rhéologiques des gels phosphocalciques ont été étudiées. Le suivi de la viscosité et des caractéristiques élastiques a permis de mettre en évidence la formation d’un gel viscoélastique qui pourrait présenter de nombreux avantages dans des applications environnementales. / The aim of this research was the valorization of industrial wastes rich in carbonates to prepare calcium phosphate gels for environmental applications. The phosphocalcic gel was prepared by precipitation from calcium carbonate industrial waste and a phosphate solution. The process consisted in mixing the reagents under a set of variable parameters (pH, Ca / P, temperature, dilution) to study the influence of each parameter on the conversion rate and the adsorption properties of the synthetized material. A reference hydroxyapatite was prepared following the same procedure with a commercial carbonate grade (98% wt), in order to compare with the waste-made hydroxyapatite. The characterization and chemical analysis of synthetized hydroxyapatites were carried out by means of rheology, particle size, Scanning Electron Microscopy, BET, ThermoGravimetric Analysis – Differential Scanning Calorimetry, X Ray Diffraction and Infrared spectroscopy (Fourrier Transformation Infra Red) analysis. The results obtained led to find out the chronology of the carbonates conversion into Ca-Hap precursors and particles of amorphous Ca-HAp. The kinetics show that the conversion rate is about 90% (wt) for pure CaCO3, 70% for the first waste and 50% for the second waste. Monitoring the viscosity and elastic properties has allowed us to demonstrate the formation of a viscoelastic gel. The synthesis of an elastic gel of calcium phosphate using CaCO3 waste seems to be a promising way to transform calcium residues into a valuable sorbent. Valorization of this gel in environmental applications for pollution remediation seems to be an advantageous perspective.

Calcium carbonate precipitation and formation of clog particles inside the leachate collection pipe can cause catastrophic failures in landfill operation. This study focuses on quantifying the effectiveness of electronic scale control to reduce the clog formation within the pipe network. A field scale model (40ft × 20ft) was constructed, featuring side-by-side flow of electronically treated and untreated composite leachate. Data obtained in the first phase of this study indicate that electronic scale control system does not have any statistically significant effect on water quality parameters. The second phase of this study identified calcite (CaCO3) to be the predominant phase present in the precipitates using XRD/XRF diffraction pattern analyzed through a search match calculation program (MATCH! Version 3.2.0) which concur with the previous studies. Furthermore, Rietveld refinement using FullProf Suite confirms that there were no differences between the treated and untreated precipitate based on the phases identified in the respective samples. / Includes bibliography. / Thesis (M.S.)--Florida Atlantic University, 2016. / FAU Electronic Theses and Dissertations Collection

O objetivo do presente trabalho foi avaliar o efeito de aditivos químicos sobre as perdas de matéria seca, composição química, valor nutritivo e estabilidade aeróbia da cana-de-açúcar in natura ou ensilada. No primeiro experimento, a cana-de-açúcar foi ensilada em silos laboratoriais. O experimento foi desenvolvido em delineamento experimental inteiramente casualizado com quatro repetições por tratamento. Os tratamentos avaliados foram: L. buchneri, cal virgem e calcário em doses de 1,0 e 1,5% da MV e gesso a 1,0% da MV, diluídos em 40L de água por tonelada de massa verde. Após a abertura dos silos, foram realizadas avaliações de perdas, estabilidade aeróbia, valor nutritivo e composição química. Os tratamentos contendo fontes de CaO ou CaCO3 apresentaram maior recuperação de matéria seca e menores perdas totais e gasosas. Nesses tratamentos também foram observados menor teor de etanol e maior concentração de ácido lático e de carboidratos solúveis. Para as variáveis de valor nutritivo, as silagens tratadas com esses aditivos apresentaram alto teor de cinzas, menor teor de fibra, maior coeficiente de digestibilidade e pequena alteração da fração protéica. As silagens de cana-de-açúcar com gesso ou L. buchneri apresentaram desempenho semelhante a silagem controle para as variáveis acima mencionadas. No ensaio de estabilidade aeróbia, a silagem aditivada com 1,5% de cal virgem apresentou desempenho superior e semelhante as silagens com L. buchneri e gesso. De forma geral, durante a fase anaeróbia as silagens tratadas com fontes de CaO ou CaCO3 apresentaram desempenho superior. Entretanto, na fase aeróbia, somente o tratamento contendo 1,5% de cal virgem manteve desempenho satisfatório. O segundo experimento avaliou o tratamento em montes da cana-de-açúcar picada in natura com doses de cal virgem durante dez dias de exposição aeróbia. O experimento foi realizado em delineamento inteiramente casualizado com quatro repetições por tratamento e em arranjo fatorial 2x4 com medidas repetidas no tempo. O fatorial foi composto por dois modos de aplicação e quatro doses do aditivo (0, 0,5, 1,0 e 1,5% da MV). Durante o ensaio foram realizadas avaliações de estabilidade aeróbia, valor nutritivo e composição química. Para as variáveis de estabilidade aeróbia, a utilização de cal virgem foi efetiva em evitar o aquecimento da massa de forragem e reduzir as perdas de matéria seca. Para a avaliação químico-bromatológica, não foi constatada diferença nos teores de CHO´S entre os tratamentos. O tratamento da cana-de-açúcar com cal virgem elevou o pH e a fração mineral da forragem. Os maiores teores de proteína bruta foram observados para a forragem não aditivada, contudo os valores obtidos para os demais tratamentos estão dentro da amplitude relatada na literatura. Doses de 1,0% e 1,5% do aditivo foram efetivas em evitar a elevação nos teores de FDN e FDA da canade- açúcar. A fração hemicelulose sofreu solubilização parcial imediatamente após a aplicação do aditivo. Os maiores coeficientes de DVIVMS e DVIVMO foram observados para as doses altas do aditivo, no modo de aplicação a seco, principalmente nas primeiras horas após o tratamento. / The objective of this trial was to evaluate the effects of chemical additives over the dry matter losses, chemical composition, nutritive value and aerobic stability of green chopped and ensiled sugarcane. In the first trial, the sugar cane was ensiled in experimental silos. The trial was carried out in a completely randomized experimental design with four replicates per treatment. The treatments evaluated were: L. buchneri, CaO and CaCO3, 1.0 e 1.5% and Ca(SO4)2, 1.0% (wet basis), all of them diluted to 40L of water per ton of fresh forage. After the silos were opened, the following variables were analyzed: losses, aerobic stability, nutritive value and chemical composition. Higher recovery rates and lower dry matter losses and gaseous production were observed for the silages containing CaO or CaCO3. In these treatments were also observed lower ethanol production and higher lactic acid and water soluble carbohydrates contents. The analysis of nutritive value showed that the utilization of CaO and CaCO3 increased the ash content, diminished the fibrous portion, improved the organic and dry matter digestibility and resulted in small changes of the crude protein content. The utilization of L. buchneri and Ca(SO4)2 resulted in silages similar to the control treatment for these variables. In the aerobic stability assay, only the silage containing 1.5% of CaO maintained the best performance. The silages treated with L. buchneri or Ca(SO4)2 showed similar performance. In summary, the silages treated with CaO or CaCO3 showed the best performance in the anaerobic phase and in the aerobic assay, only the treatment containing 1.5% of CaO maintained the positive performance across both assay. In the second trial, the green chopped sugar cane was treated with doses of CaO in an aerobic assay during ten days. The trial was carried out as a completely randomized experimental design with four replicates in a factorial design with repeated measures. The factorial was composed by two application methods and by increasing doses of CaO (0, 0.5, 1.0 e 1.5% in FF). The following variables were analyzed during the assay: aerobic stability, nutritive value and chemical composition. During the aerobic assay, the treatment with CaO reduced the heating and the dry matter losses in fresh sugar cane. For the chemical composition and nutritive value, there were no differences between treatments for the water soluble carbohydrates concentration. The utilization of CaO increased the pH and ash content of forages. Higher levels of crude protein were observed for the control forage, however the utilization of CaO did not reduced significantly the crude protein value. Doses of 1.0 and 1.5% of CaO inhibited the NDF and ADF uprising contents in the fresh sugar cane. The hemicellulose portion was solubilized immediately after the addition of CaO. Higher IVDMD and IVOMD coefficients were observed for the forage treated with 1.0% of CaO applied dried, mainly during the period immediately after treatment.

Ce travail porte sur la recherche et le développement d'un matériau de substitution osseuse permettant une implantation par chirurgie mini invasive, limitant les infections post-opératoires et dont la résorbabilité serait adaptée à la cinétique de régénération osseuse. Nous nous sommes intéressés à un ciment à base de carbonate et de phosphate de calcium (CaCO3 – CaP) dont la réaction de prise conduit à la formation d'une apatite nanocristalline analogue au minéral osseux. Dans une première partie la cinétique de prise et le produit de réaction ont été caractérisés par différentes techniques, notamment la diffraction des RX et les spectroscopies FTIR et RMN du solide. Un sel d'argent – Ag3PO4 ou AgNO3, choisis pour leurs propriétés antibactériennes – a été ensuite introduit dans la formulation. Son effet sur la cinétique de la réaction chimique de prise a été mis en évidence par traitement des spectres FTIR et RMN et un mécanisme réactionnel original impliquant les ions argent et nitrate dans la formation de l'apatite a été proposé. L'ajout d'un polysaccharide, la carboxyméthylcellulose (CMC), dans la phase solide du ciment a montré une très nette amélioration de l'injectabilité de la pâte, avec la disparition du phénomène de séparation des phases qui limite généralement l'injectabilité des ciments minéraux. La résistance à la compression et le module élastique des ciments composites ont été par ailleurs augmentés, parallèlement à une diminution de leur porosité. Différentes études in vitro en présence de cellules ou de bactéries ont enfin été réalisées et ont mis en évidence respectivement la cytocompatibilité des différentes compositions de ciments étudiées et le caractère antibactérien de ces matériaux à partir d'une certaine concentration en argent. L'implantation in vivo de compositions choisies a présenté des résultats très prometteurs quant à la résorbabilité d'un ciment composite CaCO3 - CaP/CMC/Ag et à la néoformation osseuse. / The present work concerns research and development of a material for bone substitution, enabling implantation through a mini-invasive surgery, limiting post-operative infections and whose resorbability is adapted to bone regeneration kinetics. This study focused on a calcium carbonate and phosphate based cement, whose setting reaction leads to the formation of a nanocrystalline apatite, similar to bone mineral. First, the setting kinetics and the reaction products were characterised using different techniques, especially X-ray diffraction and FTIR and solid-state NMR spectroscopies. A silver salt – Ag3PO4 or AgNO3, chosen for their antibacterial properties – was then introduced in the formulation. Its effect on the setting reaction kinetics was revealed by data processing of FTIR and NMR spectra and an original reaction mechanism which involves silver and nitrates in the formation of apatite was proposed. The addition of a polysaccharide, carboxymethylcellulose (CMC), in the solid phase of the cement showed a clear improvement of the injectability of the paste, preventing the occurrence of filter-pressing phenomenon, often limiting the injectability of mineral cements. The resistance to compressive strength and elastic modulus of the composite cement were also improved together with a decrease in their porosity. Different in vitro studies were carried out in the presence of cells or bacteria and demonstrated the cytocompatibility of different cement compositions and their antibacterial properties starting at a certain silver concentration, respectively. In vivo implantation of selected compositions showed promising results concerning resorbability of a composite CaCO3 - CaP/CMC/Ag cement and the associated bone neoformation.

The primary reason for incorporating pigments into plastic materials is to impart the desired colour to finished articles. Some pigments however, may interact with the polymer leading to unexpected deleterious effects. Organic pigments, especially phthalocyanines, are favourable for their brilliant shade but are also well known for causing part distortion or warpage. This causes problems in parts which require good dimensional stability such as crates, containers, trays, caps and closures. Despite that, there are not many published studies on the root cause and mechanism of warpage induced by the pigment. Hence, the objective of this research is to study the influence of such pigments on the dimensional stability, crystallisation behaviour and morphology of polyethylenes in order to have a better understanding on the mechanism of warpage, which could possibly lead to a solution in overcoming this problem.

In dieser Arbeit ist es gelungen, die Bedeutung physikalisch-chemischer Mechanismen in der Biomineralisation gegenüber der bisher angenommenen Dominanz spezifischer biomolekularer Erkennungsmechanismen aufzuzeigen. Dazu wurden drei Ansätze verfolgt: Zum einen wurden Studien zur Calciumcarbonatkristallisation durchgeführt. Zum anderen wurde das Biomineral Perlmutt intensiv untersucht. Als drittes wurde ein Modellsystem entwickelt, mit dem künstliches Perlmutt synthetisiert und ein Mechanismus für die Perlmuttmineralisation vorgeschlagen werden konnte. <br><br> Im ersten Schritt wurden in einem simplen Kristallisationsansatz komplexe Calciumcarbonatüberstrukturen ohne die Verwendung von Additiven synthetisiert. Es wurde gezeigt, daß diese durch orientierte Anlagerung von Nanopartikeln gebildet werden, bei der dipolare Felder eine wichtige Rolle zu spielen scheinen. Dieser Mechansimus war bislang für Calciumcarbonat unbekannt und ermöglicht die Synthese komplexer Kristallmorphologien, wodurch die Frage aufgeworfen wird, ob er bei der Biomineralbildung von Bedeutung sein kann. Durch Einsatz minimaler Mengen eines einfachen, synthetischen Additivs bei der Kristallisation wurden zu Überstrukturen angeordnete Aragonitplättchen synthetisiert, die von einer wenige nm dicken Schicht aus amorphen Calciumcarbonat umgeben sind. Eine solche Schicht wurde auch bei den Aragonitplättchen Perlmutts entdeckt (s.u.) und bietet möglicherweise in verschiedenen Systemen eine Erklärung für die Stabilisierung der sonst metastabilen Aragonitphase. <br><br> Im zweiten Schritt wurden bei der Untersuchung von natürlichem Perlmutt zwei bislang unbekannte Strukturmerkmale entdeckt: Es gibt Bereiche, die nicht aus den charakteristischen Plättchen bestehen, sondern wesentlich weniger stark mineralisert sind. Die Mineralphase besteht in diesen Bereichen aus Nanopartikeln. Es wurde weiterhin gezeigt, daß die Aragonitplättchen von einer wenige nm dicken Schicht aus amorphem Calciumcarbonat umgeben ist. Die gängigen Modelle der Perlmuttbildung sind mit diesen Beobachtungen nicht zu vereinbaren und somit zu hinterfragen. Dagegen deuten diese Ergebnisse ein Wachstum von Perlmutt über ACC-Nanopartikel an. <br><br> Unter der Annahme der Bedeutung physikalisch-chemischer Mechanismen in der Biomineralisation wurde schließlich als dritter Schritt ein Ansatz zur in vitro-Retrosynthese von Biomineralien ausgehend von ihrer unlöslichen Matrix entwickelt. <br><br> Mit diesem Ansatz ist es erstmals gelungen, künstliches Perlmutt auf synthetischem Wege herzustellen, das morphologisch nicht vom Original zu unterscheiden ist. Die existierenden Unterschiede konnten zeigen, daß der Mineralisationsprozeß nicht auf ein spezifisches Mikroumgebungssystem beschränkt, sondern "allgemeiner gültig"' sein muß. <br><br> Bei der Retrosynthese gibt es zwei Schlüsselfaktoren: Zum einen die demineralisierte unlösliche Perlmuttmatrix als dreidimensionales Gerüst für das künstliche Perlmutt, zum anderen amorphe Precursorpartikel, die die Mineralphase bilden. Es werden keinerlei Proteine oder andere Biomoleküle verwendet. Dieser Ansatz bietet die Möglichkeit, den Mineralisationsprozeß an einem in vitro-Modellsystem zu verfolgen, was für das in vivo-System, wenn überhaupt, nur unter starken Einschränkungen möglich ist.<br><br> Es wurde gezeigt, daß das künstliche Perlmutt über die Mesoskalentransformation von ACC-Precursorn innerhalb der Matrix gebildet wird und als möglicher Mechanismus bei der Biomineralisation von natürlichem Perlmutt diskutiert. Es konnte in der vorliegenden Arbeit konsequent gezeigt werden, daß die Imitation von Biomineralisationsprozessen in in vitro-Ansätzen möglich ist, wobei chemisch-physikalische Parameter dominieren. <br><br> In zukünftigen Studien sollten einerseits die mechanischen Eigenschaften des künstlichen Perlmutts untersucht werden, wofür sich in Vorversuchen im Rahmen dieser Arbeit die Nanoindentierung als geeignet herausgestellt hat. Es sollte geprüft werden, ob das hier ermittelte Prinzip zur Mineralisierung in der Materialentwicklung angewendet werden kann. Andererseits sollte die Retrosynthese auf andere Systeme ausgeweitet und in vivo-Studien durchgeführt werden, um die Gültigkeit der vorgeschlagenen Mechanismen zu überprüfen. / This thesis highlights the importance of physical-chemical mechanisms in biomineralisation and, thus, challenges the widely accepted dominance of specific biomolecular recognition mechanisms. <br><br> The work is divided into three parts: the first part addresses the crystallisation of calcium carbonate; the second part focuses on an intensive study of the biomineral, nacre, and, lastly, a retrosynthesis model system is designed and applied to synthesize artificial nacre. A mechanism for nacre mineralisation in nature is proposed. <br><br> Initially, complex calcium carbonate superstructures were synthesized in the absence of any additive. These were shown to grow by an oriented attachment mechanism of nanoparticles, presumably under the influence of dipolar fields. This growth mechanism has, to date, not been described for calcium carbonate. This mechanism opens the possibility to synthesize complex crystal morphologies of calcium carbonate and arises the question as to whether it plays a role in the growth of biominerals. <br><br> With the presence of small amounts of additives in calcium carbonate crystallisation it was possible to synthesize superstructures of aragonite platelets, each of which surrounded by a layer of amorphous calcium carbonate (ACC). Such ACC layers were also found in natural nacre (see below) and may explain the stabilisation of the metastable calcium carbonate polymorph aragonite. <br><br> In the second part of this thesis two unknown features of nacre structures were distinguished: Some areas within the nacre do not consist of the characteristic aragonite platelets but are mineralized only to a low degree. In these areas the mineral phase is clearly composed of nanoparticles. Furthermore, the aragonite platelets of nacre are shown to be surrounded by an ACC layer. Both observations contradict the classical models of nacre growth mechanisms but hint towards a growth via ACC nanoparticles. <br><br> Assuming the importance of physical-chemical mechanisms in biomineralisation, an approach for the in vitro retrosynthesis of biominerals was designed. Through this, it was possible, for the first time, to synthesize artificial nacre, which was indistinguishable in morphology from the original. The non-morphological differences between original and synthesized nacre showed that the biological process of mineralization is not limited to one specific microenvironment, but must be more general. <br><br> Two key factors are of importance for the retrosynthesis approach: 1) The demineralised nacre matrix, which forms a scaffold for the artificial mineral phase and; 2) amorphous nanoparticles as precursors, which transform into the mineral phase. No proteins or other biomolecules were utilized. In this way, the biomineralisation process could be followed in an in vitro model, a process, which is hardly possible in such detail under in vivo conditions. This work proves that the artificial nacre grows by a mesoscale transformation of ACC nanoparticles, and discusses this mechanism as a possible growth mechanism of natural nacre. This work consequently shows that it is possible to imitate biomineralisation processes in vitro and that, in–vitro, these processes are driven by physico-chemical parameters. <br><br> Future studies will involve investigation of the mechanical properties of the artificial nacre. First experiments indicate, that nanoindentation is hereby suitable. The potential application of the in vitro mineralization mechanism for new material development will be investigated. Furthermore, the retrosynthesis will be applied to other biomineral systems and, subsequently, in vivo studies will be performed so as to investigate the role of the proposed mechanisms for the natural biomineralisation process.

Formation of hexagonal boron nitride (h-BN) by carbothermic reduction of B2O3 under nitrogen atmosphere at 1500oC was investigated. Reaction products were subjected to powder X-ray diffraction analysis, chemical analysis and were examined by SEM. B4C was found to exist in the reaction products of the experiments in which h-BN formation was not complete. One of the aims of this study was to investigate the role of B4C in the carbothermic production of h-BN. For this purpose, conversion reaction of B4C into h-BN was studied. B4C used in these experiments was produced in the same conditions that h-BN was formed, but under argon atmosphere. It was found that formation of h-BN from B4C&ndash / B2O3 mixtures was slower than activated C&ndash / B2O3 mixtures. It was concluded that B4C is not a necessary intermediate product in the carbothermic production of h-BN. Some additives are known to catalytically affect the h-BN formation. The second aim of this study was to examine the catalytic effect of some alkaline earth metal oxides and carbonates, some transition metal oxides and cupric nitrate. It was found that addition of 10wt% CaCO3 into the B2O3+C mixture was optimum for increasing the rate and yield of h-BN formation and decreasing the B4C amount in the products and that the reaction was complete in 2 hours. CaCO3 was observed to be effective in increasing the rate and grain size of the formed h-BN. Addition of cupric nitrate together with CaCO3 provided a further increase in the size of the h-BN grains.

The flux of CO2 between the ocean and the atmosphere is an important measure in determining local, global, and regional, as well as short term and long term carbon budgets. In this study, air-sea CO2 fluxes measured using a floating chamber were used to examine the spatial and temporal variability of CO2 fluxes in Florida Bay. Measurements of dissolved inorganic carbon and total alkalinity obtained concurrently with chamber measurements of CO2 flux allowed calculation of ΔpCO2 from flux measurements obtained at zero wind velocity. Floating chamber measurements of ΔpCO2 were subsequently coupled with wind speed data to provide a simple yet reliable means of predicting absolute flux values. Florida Bay is a marine-dominated, sub-tropical estuary located at the southern tip of the Florida peninsula. Spatial variability within the bay reveals four distinct regions that appear to be affected by a variety of physical, chemical and biological processes. In the eastern part of the bay, the waters tend to be oversaturated with respect to CO2, likely due to the input of freshwater from Taylor Slough. The central portion of the bay is characterized by a number of extremely shallow semi-isolated basins with limited exchange with the rest of the bay. This area is typically undersaturated with respect to CO2 and provides a sink for atmospheric CO2. Both the northern and southern regions were highly variable both spatially and temporally.

Το κίνητρο της παρούσας εργασίας είναι η μελέτη των μηχανισμών καταβύθισης μέσω της in-situ ανάμειξης και καταβύθισης δυσδιάλυτων αλάτων( ανθρακικό ασβέστιο) πάνω στις επιφάνειες αλλά και κατά μήκος των πορώδων υλικών. Οι επικαθίσεις δυσδιάλυτων αλάτων σε πορώδη σχηματισμούς, αποτελεί ένα σημαντικό πρόβλημα σε βιομηχανικές εφαρμογές. Για παράδειγμα, στην παγκόσμια βιομηχανία πετρελαίου και φυσικού αερίου πολλές περιοχές άντλησης πετρελαίου αντιμετωπίζουν τεράστιο πρόβλημα επικαθίσεων αλάτων, με αποτέλεσμα την δραματική μείωση της παραγωγής πετρελαίου. Επιπλέον, προβλήματα εναπόθεσης αλάτων μειώνουν την εκμετάλλευση γεωθερμικής ενέργειας, τη διάρκεια ζωής μεμβρανών αφαλάτωσης, καθώς και την απομόνωση του CO2 σε υπόγεια πηγάδια, κτλ. Οι επικαθίσεις αλάτων σε πηγάδια άντλησης πετρελαίου προέρχονται είτε από απευθείας καταβύθιση των διαλυμένων αλάτων που βρίσκονται στο νερό που υπάρχει σε υπόγειες κοιλότητες και καταβυθίζονται εξαιτίας της διαφοροποίησης των τοπικών συνθηκών(κυρίως πίεσης και θερμοκρασίας), είτε από τις μεγάλες ποσότητες νερού που χρησιμοποιείται για την εκτόπιση του πετρελαίου στα πηγάδια παραγωγής. Ένα από τα σημαντικότερα προβλήματα που αντιμετωπίζουν οι εταιρίες εξόρυξης πετρελαίου είναι οι μειωμένοι ρυθμοί άντλησης λόγω της μείωσης του τοπικού πορώδους και της διαπερατότητας από τη δημιουργία και την ανάπτυξης επικαθίσεων στα πηγάδια εξόρυξης. Οι επικαθίσεις αλάτων μπορούν επιπλέον να φράξουν τις σωληνώσεις ή να σχηματίσουν ένα λεπτό στρώμα στα τοιχώματα των σωληνώσεων που χρησιμοποιούνται στην παραγωγή. Ο σχηματισμός επικαθίσεων έχει σαν αποτέλεσμα την δημιουργία λειτουργικών προβλημάτων και δυσκολιών, που οδηγούν σε επιπλέον κόστος και σε εξαιρετικές περιπτώσεις στην εγκατάλειψη του πηγαδιού άντλησης πετρελαίου. Αρχικά έγινε μελέτη της αυθόρμητης καταβύθισης του ανθρακικού ασβεστίου σε αντιδραστήρες διαλείποντος έργου. Μελετήθηκε επίσης και η επίδραση της ίδιας ποσότητας άμμου σε διαφορετικούς αρχικούς υπερκορεσμούς κατά την αυθόρμητη καταβύθιση του ανθρακικού ασβεστίου. Καθ’ όλη τη διάρκεια των πειραμάτων συλλέγονταν δείγματα από τον αντιδραστήρα και ανιχνευόταν η μείωση της συγκέντρωσης των ιόντων ασβεστίων με τη μέθοδο της ατομικής απορρόφησης. Από τη μείωση της συγκέντρωσης των ιόντων ασβεστίου υπολογίστηκε ο ρυθμός καταβύθισης και στη συνέχεια η φαινόμενη τάξη της αντίδρασης και η σταθερά ταχύτητας. Σε όλα τα πειράματα ανιχνεύτηκε με περίθλαση ακτίνων Χ και ηλεκτρονική μικροσκοπία σάρωσης, ο ασβεστίτης ως η μοναδική καταβυθιζόμενη φάση. Κατά την αυθόρμητη καταβύθιση του ανθρακικού ασβεστίου απουσία άμμου, ο κύριος μηχανισμός καταβύθισης βρέθηκε ότι είναι η επιφανειακή διάχυση των δομικών μονάδων σε κατάλληλες θέσεις στην επιφάνεια των κρυστάλλων, ενώ στα πειράματα παρουσία ποσότητας άμμου οι κρύσταλλοι αναπτύσσονται με βάση το πολυπυρηνικό πρότυπο. Στην παρούσα εργασία μελετάται επίσης η διεργασία καταβύθισης του δυσδιάλυτου άλατος του ανθρακικού ασβεστίου (CaCO3) σε δισδιάστατα πορώδη δοκίμια Plexiglas®. Μέσω της οπτικής παρατήρησης της ανάπτυξης των επικαθίσεων, επιχειρήθηκε η εξαγωγή ποιοτικών και ποσοτικών πληροφοριών που αφορούν τους μηχανισμούς και τον τρόπο με τον οποίο αναπτύσσονται οι κρύσταλλοι ανθρακικού ασβεστίου στα τοιχώματα του προσομοιωτή πορώδους μέσου κάτω από ρεαλιστικές συνθήκες ροής, θερμοκρασίας και συγκέντρωσης. Δύο ευδιάλυτα διαλύματα χλωριούχου ασβεστίου, CaCl2, και όξινου ανθρακικού ασβεστίου, NaHCO3, αναμιγνύονταν λίγο πριν την είσοδό τους στο πορώδες μέσο με τη βοήθεια εμβολοφόρων αντλιών. Η καταβύθιση του ανθρακικού ασβεστίου λάμβανε μέρος μέσα στο πορώδες γραμμικό μέσο. Χρησιμοποιώντας ένα οπτικό μικροσκόπιο σε συνδυασμό με βιντεοκάμερα ήταν δυνατή η παρακολούθηση και η καταγραφή των κρυστάλλων που εμφανίζονταν καθώς και η ανάπτυξη τους κατά μήκος του καναλιού, στις θέσεις 2 cm, 6 cm, 8 cm και 10 cm από την είσοδο του. Σε κάθε θέση μετρήθηκε η μεταβολή του pH και της συγκέντρωσης του ασβεστίου με το χρόνο και επιπλέον καταγράφηκε ο σχηματισμός των κρυστάλλων του ανθρακικού ασβεστίου με τη βοήθεια της κάμερας του μικροσκοπίου. Για τη μέτρηση της συγκέντρωσης των ιόντων ασβεστίων χρησιμοποιήθηκε η φασματοφωτομετρία ατομικής απορρόφησης ενώ ο υπολογισμός του μεγέθους των κρυστάλλων έγινε με τη βοήθεια του προγράμματος Adobe Photoshop CS5.1. Κατά την διάρκεια του πειράματος ο υπερκορεσμός μειωνόταν κατά μήκος του καναλιού, ως αποτέλεσμα της in situ ανάμειξης των διαλυμάτων του χλωριούχου ασβεστίου και ανθρακικού νατρίου. Τέλος, κοντά στην είσοδο του καναλιού ο αριθμός και το μέγεθος των κρυστάλλων που καταβυθιστήκαν ήταν μεγαλύτερο, συγκριτικά με αυτούς που καταβυθιστήκαν κοντά στην έξοδο. / The deposition of sparingly soluble salts in porous formations is a severe problem encountered in industrial applications. For example, in international oil and gas industry many oil fields in operation face the major problem of scale which reduces dramatically oil production. Moreover, scaling problems limit the utilization of geothermal energy, the operational life of desalination membranes, in CO2 sequestration in subsoil wells, etc. Scale deposits encountered in oil fields are formed either by direct precipitation of the dissolved salts present in the formation water and precipitate because of the change of the local conditions (mainly pressure and temperature) or because of the large quantities of the injection water used for the displacement of the oil in the production wells. In the course of scale formation and development at wellbores, both local porosity and permeability may be reduced resulting in lower oil recovery rates. Scale deposits may also block flow by clogging perforations or by forming a thick layer on the wall of the production tubing. The formation of scales may result in a series of operational problems and difficulties, and in turn, result to additional capital cost, substantial operating cost and in extreme cases in the abandonment of the oil wells. The injection water (sea water) used in oil production is a stream most often incompatible with the well formation water. Mixing the incompatible streams interact chemically resulting in the precipitation of minerals. The high concentrations of SO42- in sea water and the low concentrations of Ba2+/Sr2+ in the formation waters constitute solutions where the concentrations of SO42- are low while the concentrations of Ca2+, Ba2+ and Sr2+ are high. Mixing of these streams, there is a high probability of CaSO4, BaSO4 and/or SrSO4 precipitation. Some of the more common ions frequently encountered in oil field waters and cause precipitation in incompatible waters are Ca2+, Ba2+, Sr2+, Fe2+, HCO3- and SO42-. In most cases, the low solubility and tenaciously adhering calcium carbonate and barium sulfate scale deposits are the most commonly salts found in well scale deposits. Knowledge of the mechanisms underlying the formation of scale deposits and the concomitant effects on the changes of the local porosity and permeability is of paramount importance for the efficient design of scale control processes. On the other hand there are beneficial applications involving the precipitation of insoluble salts. The controlled precipitation of sparingly soluble salts may be used for the effective consolidation of unconsolidated or poorly consolidated formations, like the sandy soils or granular materials (applications: protection of cultivated soils from erosion by raining water, protection of sandy reservoirs from the intrusion of sand grains within the oil wells, waterproofing of underground constructions, e.g. tunnels or other concrete constructions, etc). The main motivation for the present work is the investigation of the precipitation mechanisms through in-situ mixing and the precipitation of sparingly soluble salts (calcium carbonate) in porous materials. The proposed method may be applicable for the prevention of sand entrainment into well bores during oil production in poorly consolidated oil reservoirs. In the present study two series of experiments were done in order to investigate the kinetics of calcium carbonate precipitation in batch reactors using calcium chloride and sodium bicarbonate as the initial reagents in the absence and presence of sand. In all supersaturated solutions used in the present work, the stoichiometric of total calcium ions to total bicarbonate ions was equal to 1:1. During the experiments samples were taken, filtered through membrane filters and analyzed for total calcium by atomic absorption spectroscopy. The analysis of the kinetic data showed that in spontaneous precipitation experiments the crystals grow with spiral mechanism (n=2) and in the presence of sand kinetics data were best fitted by the polynuclear model (n>2). At the end of each experiment, the fluid suspension was filtered with a 0.22 μm filter and the solids were collected, dried at room temperature, and characterized by powder X-ray diffraction (XRD) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Finally, also a series of experiments were done using two dimensional porous (Plexiglas®) medium models in which insoluble salts were nucleated from supersaturated solutions. Through the direct observation of the evolution of the deposits it was attempted to obtain qualitative and quantitative information concerning the mechanisms and pattern of deposition and growth of calcium carbonate scale on pore walls under realistic geometrical, flow, temperature and concentration conditions. Two soluble salts of calcium chloride, CaCl2, and sodium bicarbonate, NaHCO3, were mixed just before the injection point using syringe pumps. Precipitation of calcium carbonate took place within the porous medium. Using an optical microscope in combination with a video- camera it was possible to monitor crystal appearance and growth at a steady state. The growth of the calcium carbonate crystals in different positions within the etched linear porous medium as a function of time was observed. The visual observation of the crystal growth took place in different positions along the channel (2 cm, 6 cm, 8 cm and 10 cm from the inlet of the channel). In every position the changes of the pH and calcium concentration were measured and the formation of crystals was recorded through image capture. During the flow of the mixture through the channel, supersaturation decreased as a result of the in situ mixing of calcium and bicarbonate ions. As it was expected precipitation was favoured near the inlet of the cell and few crystals were precipitated near the outlet. Furthermore, the size of the crystal was bigger near the inlet of the channel in comparison to the crystals that have precipitate near the outlet of the channel.

Compósitos de polipropileno e carbonato de cálcio em escala nanométrica foram preparados através de processamento em extrusora de rosca dupla co-rotacional. Metodologia estatística (projeto de experimentos) foi utilizada para avaliar o efeito das variáveis: teor de carbonato de cálcio, velocidade de rotação e configuração dos parafusos nas propriedades dos materiais obtidos. As propriedades mecânicas foram determinadas por meio de ensaios de tração (ASTM D 638), de resistência à flexão (ASTM D 790) e de resistência ao impacto (ASTM D 256). A processabilidade dos materiais foi avaliada através de determinações do índice de fluidez (ASTM D 1238). A microscopia eletrônica de varredura foi usada para avaliar a dispersão da carga na matriz e para obter informações sobre a adesão interfacial entre ambas. Os resultados obtidos demonstraram que o teor de carga adicionado ao polímero é a variável que exerce influência mais significativa sobre o módulo de flexão e que o teor de carga e a rotação dos parafusos são as variáveis que mais afetam as propriedades de impacto. O aumento da concentração das nanopartículas causou um aumento do módulo de flexão e da resistência ao impacto, enquanto que o aumento da velocidade de rotação dos parafusos provocou a redução das propriedades do impacto. A configuração do parafuso é a variável que tem um efeito mais significativo sobre a resistência mecânica do material. A utilização de um perfil de parafuso mais cisalhante promoveu a obtenção de valores mais altos de resistência à tração. A velocidade de rotação foi a variável mais significativa na determinação do módulo de Young. O aumento da velocidade de rotação associado à utilização da configuração do parafuso mais cisalhante da extrusora propicia um aumento do módulo de Young do polipropileno. Análise de microscopia eletrônica de varredura mostrou que não houve uma boa dispersão das nanopartículas na matriz polimérica e que, apesar de haver um revestimento das partículas com estearato de cálcio, há necessidade de se obter interações mais fortes entre a matriz polimérica e a carga inorgânica. A comparação entre os perfis de parafuso utilizados no processo de extrusão mostrou que materiais mais resistentes à flexão e ao impacto são obtidos a 350 rpm, utilizando a configuração de parafuso menos cisalhante. Há, entretanto, redução das propriedades de tração. Para obtenção de nanocompósitos de polipropileno e carbonato de cálcio, outras condições de processamento, e/ou outros procedimentos de revestimento das cargas devem ser testados de forma a promover melhor dispersão da carga e melhor interação entre carga e matriz.