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University of Macau / Faculty of Education

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Philosophiae Doctor - PhD / The role of phenolic acids in mitigating salt stress tolerance have been well documented. However, there are contradicting reports on the effect of exogenously applied phenolic acids on the growth and development of various plants species. A general trend was observed where phenolic acids were shown to inhibit plant growth and development, with the exception of a few documented cases. One of these such cases is presented in this thesis. This study investigates the role of exogenously applied p-coumaric acid (p-CA) on physio-biochemical and molecular responses of chia seedlings under salt stress. This study is divided into three parts. Part one (Chapter 3) focuses on the impact of exogenous p-coumaric acid on the growth and development of chia seedlings. In this section, chia seedlings were supplemented with exogenous p-CA and the various biochemical and plant growth parameters were measured. The results showed that exogenous p-CA enhanced the growth of chia seedlings. An increase in chlorophyll, proline and superoxide oxide contents were also observed in the p-CA treatment relative to the control. We suggested that the increase in chia seedling growth could possibly be via the activation of reactive oxygen species-signalling pathway involving O2− under the control of proline accumulation (Chapter 3). Given the allopathy, nature of p-coumaric acid it is noteworthy that the response observed in this study may be species dependent, as contrasting responses have been reported in other plant species. Part two (Chapter 4) of this study investigates the influence of piperonylic acid (an inhibitor of endogenous p-coumaric acid) on the growth and development of chia seedlings. In trying to illustrate whether p-CA does play a regulatory role in enhancing pseudocereal plant growth, we treated chia seedlings with the irreversible inhibitor of C4H enzyme, to inhibit the biosynthesis of endogenous p-CA. In this section, chia seedlings were treated with piperonylic acid and changes in plant growth, ROS-induced oxidative damage, p-CA content and antioxidant capacity was monitored. Inhibition of endogenous p-CA restricted chia seedling growth by enhancing ROS-induced oxidative damage as seen for increased levels of superoxide, hydrogen peroxide and the extent of lipid peroxidation. Although an increase in antioxidant activity was observed in response to piperonylic acid, this increase was not sufficient to scavenge the ROS molecules to prevent oxidative damage and ultimate cellular death manifested as reduced plant growth. The results presented in this section support our hypothesis that p-CA play an important regulatory role in enhancing chia seedling growth and development as shown in Chapter 3. Part three (Chapter 5) seeks to identify and functionally characterise p-coumaric acid induced putative protein biomarkers under salt stress conditions in chia seedlings. Previous studies have shown that p-CA reversing the negative effect caused by NaCl-induced salt stress. While these studies were able to demonstrate the involvement of p-CA in promoting plant growth under salt stress conditions, they focussed primarily on the physiological aspect, which lacks in-depth biochemical and molecular analysis (ionomic and proteomic data) which could help in detecting the genes/proteins involved in salt stress tolerance mechanisms. A comparative ionomics and proteomic study was conducted, with the aim of elucidating the pivotal roles of essential macro elements and/or key protein markers involved in p-CA induced salt stress tolerance in chia seedlings. With the exception of Na, all the other macro elements were decreased in the salt treatment. Contrary to what was observed for the salt treatment most of the macro elements were increased in the p-CA treatment. However, the addition of exogenous p-CA to salt stressed seedlings showed an increase in essential macro elements such as Mg and Ca which have been shown to play a key role in plant growth and development. In the proteomic analysis we identified 907 proteins associated with shoots across all treatments. Interestingly, only eight proteins were conserved amongst all treatments. A total of 79 proteins were unique to the p-CA, 26 to the combination treatment (NaCl + p-CA) and only two proteins were unique to the salt stress treatment. The unique proteins identified in each of the treatments were functionally characterised to various subcellular compartments and biological processes. Most of the positively identified proteins were localised to the chloroplast and plays key roles in photosynthesis, transportation, stress responses and signal transduction pathways. Moreover, the protein biomarkers identified in this study (especially in the p-CA treatment) are putative candidates for genetic improvement of salt stress tolerance in plants.

Tesis por compendio / [ES] La producción masiva de plásticos ha generado graves problemas medioambientales, ya que su lenta degradación y alta persistencia en el medio ambiente causa la acumulación de residuos plásticos en los océanos y tierras. Como respuesta, se está llevando a cabo una búsqueda activa de alternativas más sostenibles, incluyendo biopolímeros, materiales compostables y biodegradables, polímeros reciclados y materiales biológicos. Se están desarrollando nuevas tecnologías para la producción de envases y productos que sean más sostenibles y reciclables, y se están promoviendo iniciativas de educación y concienciación para reducir el consumo y fomentar el reciclaje. La búsqueda de alternativas sostenibles es una prioridad urgente para abordar los impactos ambientales de los plásticos. La semilla de chía tiene un gran potencial en el campo de los biopolímeros debido a su alto contenido de ácidos grasos poliinsaturados (alrededor de un 30% en peso de la semilla) y cuya harina de chía está formada por proteínas, mucílago, carbohidratos y residuos lignocelulósicos principalmente. Estos componentes pueden ser utilizados para producir biopolímeros naturales y biodegradables, que pueden ser una alternativa más sostenible a los polímeros sintéticos tradicionales. La presente tesis doctoral evalúa la capacidad de emplear la semilla de chía como recurso renovable funcional en el campo de los biopolímeros. Tras un proceso de extracción se evalúa la posibilidad de modificar químicamente los ácidos grasos poliisaturados presentes en los ácidos grasos del aceite de chía. Por tanto, uno de los primeros objetivos marcados es la optimización de un proceso como la epoxidación del aceite de chía, no realizada en la comunidad científica hasta el momento. El desarrollo de este aceite de chía epoxidado (ECO) permite su posterior testado como plastificante de origen bio en biopolímeros intrínsecamente rígidos y frágiles como el PLA. Además, este mismo aceite epoxidado puede emplearse como compatibilizante entre moléculas apolares, como son las matrices poliméricas, y las cargas lignocelulósicas, como la propia harina de chía, introducidas para mitigar el impacto ambiental y aumentar la revalorización de subproductos de la semilla de chía. El empleo de ECO como compatibilizante se ha llevado a cabo con matrices basadas en PLA y biopolietileno (Bio-HDPE), desarrollando biopolímeros biodegradables y no biodegradables para diferentes sectores. También se ha desarrollado un aceite de chía maleinizado (MCO). La introducción de esta molécula de anhídrido maleico en el triglicérido le permite tener una elevada reactividad apta para el desarrollo de un nuevo bioplastificante, como se ha demostrado mediante la introducción en matrices de PLA, e incluso para su empleo como endurecedores de resinas de tipo epoxi. Se lleva a cabo por primera vez el desarrollo de una resina termoestable basada al 100 % en ECO como base de la resina epoxy y MCO como endurecedor bio. Finalmente, el aceite de chía también puede emplearse como materia prima para la obtención de glicolípidos con comportamiento de cristal líquido. Estos glicolípidos serán estudiados para conocer su potencial como surfactante en aplicaciones cosméticas o en aplicaciones energéticas para la conversión y almacenamiento de energía en presencia de compuestos que interaccionan con la luz solar. Por tanto, las investigaciones desarrolladas en la presente tesis doctoral han permitido explorar por primera vez el empleo de la semilla de chía como fuente de materia prima renovable para la obtención de compuestos activos aplicables al sector de los biopolímeros. Para ello se han desarrollado nuevos compatibilizantes y plastificantes mediante el desarrollo del ECO y del MCO, la revalorización de la harina de chía mediante su adición en matrices poliméricas desarrollando nuevos WPC y desarrollando, por primera vez, una resina termoestable originaria al 100% de la semilla de la chía. / [CA] La producció massiva de plàstics ha generat greus problemes mediambientals, ja que la seua lenta degradació i alta persistència en el medi ambient causa l'acumulació de residus plàstics en els oceans i terres. Com a resposta, s'està duent a terme una cerca activa d'alternatives més sostenibles, incloent-hi biopolímers, materials compostables i biodegradables, polímers reciclats i materials biològics. S'estan desenvolupant noves tecnologies per a la producció d'envasos i productes que siguen més sostenibles i reciclables, i s'estan promovent iniciatives d'educació i conscienciació per a reduir el consum i fomentar el reciclatge. La cerca d'alternatives sostenibles és una prioritat urgent per a abordar els impactes ambientals dels plàstics. La llavor de xia té un gran potencial en el camp dels biopolímers a causa del seu alt contingut d'àcids grassos poliinsaturats (al voltant d'un 30% en pes de la llavor) i la farina de xia de la qual està formada per proteïnes, mucílag, carbohidrats i residus lignocelulósics principalment. Aquests components poden ser utilitzats per a produir biopolímers naturals i biodegradables, que poden ser una alternativa més sostenible als polímers sintètics tradicionals. La present tesi doctoral avalua la capacitat d'emprar la llavor de xia com a recurs renovable funcional en el camp dels biopolímers. Després d'un procés d'extracció s'avalua la possibilitat de modificar químicament els àcids grassos poliisaturats presents en els àcids grassos de l'oli de xia. Per tant, un dels primers objectius marcats és l'optimització d'un procés com l'epoxidació de l'oli de xia, no realitzada en la comunitat científica fins al moment. El desenvolupament d'aquest oli de xia epoxidado (ECO) permet el seu posterior testat com a plastificant d'origen bio en biopolímers intrínsecament rígids i fràgils com el PLA. A més, aquest mateix oli epoxidado pot emprar-se com compatibilizant entre molècules apolares, com són les matrius polimèriques, i les càrregues lignocelulósiques, com la pròpia farina de xia, introduïdes per a mitigar l'impacte ambiental i augmentar la revaloració de subproductes de la llavor de xia. L'ocupació d'ECO com compatibilizant s'ha dut a terme amb matrius basades en PLA i biopolietileno (Bio-HDPE), desenvolupant biopolímers biodegradables i no biodegradables per a diferents sectors. També s'ha desenvolupat un oli de xia maleinizado (MCO). La introducció d'aquesta molècula d'anhídrid maleic en el triglicèrid li permet tindre una elevada reactivitat apta per al desenvolupament d'un nou bioplastificant, com s'ha demostrat mitjançant la introducció en matrius de PLA, i fins i tot per al seu ús com a enduridors de resines de tipus epoxi. Es duu a terme per primera vegada el desenvolupament d'una resina termoestable basada al 100% en ECO com a base de la resina epoxi i MCO com a enduridor bio. Finalment, l'oli de xia també pot emprar-se com a matèria primera per a l'obtenció de glicolípids amb comportament de cristall líquid. Aquests glicolípids seran estudiats per a conéixer el seu potencial com a surfactant en aplicacions cosmètiques o en aplicacions energètiques per a la conversió i emmagatzematge d'energia en presència de compostos que interaccionen amb la llum solar. Per tant, les investigacions desenvolupades en la present tesi doctoral han permés explorar per primera vegada l'ús de la llavor de xia com a font de matèria primera renovable per a l'obtenció de compostos actius aplicables al sector dels biopolímers. Per a això s'han desenvolupat nous compatibilizants i plastificants mitjançant el desenvolupament del ECO i del MCO, la revaloració de la farina de xia mitjançant la seua addició en matrius polimèriques desenvolupant nous WPC i desenvolupant, per primera vegada, una resina termoestable originària al 100% de la llavor de la xia. / [EN] The mass production of plastics has led to serious environmental problems, as their slow degradation and high persistence in the environment causes the accumulation of plastic waste in oceans and land. In response, there is an active search for more sustainable alternatives, including biopolymers, compostable and biodegradable materials, recycled polymers and bio-based materials. New technologies are being developed for the production of packaging and products that are more sustainable and recyclable, and education and awareness initiatives are being promoted to reduce consumption and encourage recycling. The search for sustainable alternatives is an urgent priority to address the environmental impacts of plastics. Chia seed has great potential in the field of biopolymers due to its high content of polyunsaturated fatty acids (around 30% by weight of the seed) and chia flour is mainly composed of proteins, mucilage, carbohydrates and lignocellulosic residues. These components can be used to produce natural and biodegradable biopolymers, which can be a more sustainable alternative to traditional synthetic polymers. This doctoral thesis evaluates the capacity of using chia seed as a functional renewable resource in the field of biopolymers. After an extraction process, the possibility of chemically modifying the polyunsaturated fatty acids present in the fatty acids of chia oil is evaluated. Therefore, one of the first objectives is the optimisation of a process such as the epoxidation of chia oil, which has not been carried out in the scientific community until now. The development of this epoxidised chia oil (ECO) allows its subsequent testing as a bio-based plasticiser in intrinsically rigid and fragile biopolymers such as PLA. Furthermore, this same epoxidised oil can be used as a compatibiliser between apolar molecules, such as polymeric matrices, and lignocellulosic fillers, such as chia flour itself, introduced to mitigate the environmental impact and increase the revaluation of chia seed by-products. The use of ECO as a compatibiliser has been carried out with PLA and biopolyethylene (Bio-HDPE) based matrices, developing biodegradable and non-biodegradable biopolymers for different sectors. A maleinised chia oil (MCO) has also been developed. The introduction of this maleic anhydride molecule in the triglyceride allows it to have a high reactivity suitable for the development of a new bioplasticiser, as has been demonstrated by introducing it into PLA matrices, and even for use as hardeners in epoxy-type resis. For the first time, the development of a thermosetting resin based 100% on ECO as the base of the epoxy resin and MCO as the bio hardener is carried out. Finally, chia oil can also be used as a raw material to obtain glycolipids with liquid crystal behaviour. These glycolipids will be studied for their potential as surfactants in cosmetic applications or in energy applications for energy conversion and storage in the presence of compounds that interact with sunlight. Therefore, the research carried out in this doctoral thesis has made it possible to explore for the first time the use of chia seeds as a source of renewable raw material for obtaining active compounds applicable to the biopolymer sector. To this end, new compatibilisers and plasticisers have been developed through the development of ECO and MCO, the revaluation of chia flour by adding it to polymeric matrices, developing new WPCs and developing, for the first time, a thermosetting resin made from 100% chia seed. / This research work was funded by the Ministry of Science and Innovation-”Retos de la Sociedad”. Project reference: PID2020-119142RA-I00. I. Dominguez-Candela wants to thank Universitat Politècnica de València for his FPI grant (PAID-2019- SP20190013) and Generalitat Valenciana (GVA) and the European Social Found (ESF), for his FPI grant (ACIF/2020/233) and the mobility grant (CIBEFP/2021/53). The authors from INMA greatly appreciate financial support from projects of the Spanish Government PGC2018-093761-B-C31 [MCIU/AEI/FEDER, UE] and the Gobierno de Aragón/FEDER (research group E47_20R). Thanks are given to the nuclear magnetic resonance, mass spectrometry, and thermal analysis services of the INMA (Univ. Zaragoza-CSIC) / Domínguez Candela, I. (2023). Hacia una economía circular: revalorización de productos de la semilla de salvia hispanica L. en el sector de los biopolímeros [Tesis doctoral]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/195025 / Compendio