Whilst there has been a recent increase in interest in using positive reinforcement training for laboratory-housed primates, there remains a reluctance to put into practice training programmes. Much of this reticence seems to stem from lack of expertise in the running of training programmes, and a perception that training requires a large time investment, with concurrent staff costs. The aim of this thesis was to provide practical recommendations for the use of training programmes in laboratories, providing primate users and carestaff with background information needed to successfully implement training programmes whilst improving the welfare of the animals in their care. Training was carried out with two species, cynomolgus macaques (Macaca fascicularis) and common marmosets (Callithrix jacchus) in three different research laboratories to ensure practicability was as wide ranging as possible. Training success and the time investment required were closely related to the primate's temperament, most notably an individual's willingness to interact with humans, in both common marmosets and cynomolgus macaques. Age and sex however had no effect on an individual's trainability. The training of common marmosets was more successful than that with cynomolgus macaques, possibly due to differences in early experience and socialisation. Positive reinforcement training helped both species to cope with the stress of cage change or cleaning, with the monkeys showing less anxiety-related behaviour following the training programme than before. Involving two trainers in the training process did not affect the speed at which common marmosets learned to cooperate with transport box training, but behavioural observations showed that initial training sessions with a new trainer led to animals experiencing some anxiety. This however was relatively transient. Whilst the training of common marmosets to cooperate with hand capture was possible, there seemed little benefit in doing so as the monkeys did not show a reduced behavioural or physiological stress response to trained capture as compared to hand capture prior to training. However strong evidence was found that following both training and positive human interactions the marmosets coped better with capture and stress was reduced. It is recommended that an increased use of early socialisation would benefit laboratory-housed primates, and would also help improve the success of training. Further, the time investment required shows that training is practicable in the laboratory for both species, and that positive reinforcement training is an important way of improving their welfare likely through reducing boredom and fear.

The social transmission of social behaviours in nonhuman primates has been understudied, experimentally, relative to instrumental, food-related behaviours. This is disproportional in relation to the comparatively high percentage of potential social traditions reported in wild primates. I report a systematic survey of the social learning literature and provide quantitative evidence of the discrepancy (Watson and Caldwell, 2009). Addressing the identified deficit in experimental work on social behaviours, I also report three empirical studies investigating the contagious nature of affective states in captive, socially housed marmosets. I carried out an observational study, to determine whether marmosets are influenced by spontaneously produced neighbour calls to perform a range of behaviours associated with similar affect. My results supported a neighbour effect for anxiety in marmosets. Consistent with previous findings for chimpanzees (Baker and Aureli, 1996; Videan et al., 2005), I also found evidence for neighbour effects for aggression and affiliation (Watson and Caldwell, 2010). Through experimental playback, I investigated contingent social contagion in the auditory and visual modalities. The playback of pre-recorded affiliative (chirp) calls was found to be associated with marmosets spending increased time in a range of affiliative behaviours. Playback of video showing conspecifics engaged in a positive affiliative behaviour (allogrooming) also appeared to cause marmosets to spend longer performing various affiliative behaviours. My results indicate that social contagion of affiliation is a multi-modal phenomenon in marmosets and also represent the first evidence that allogrooming is visually contagious in primates. Sapolsky (2006) conceptualised culture as the performance of species-typical behaviours to an unusual extent, termed ‘social culture’. Researchers have yet to directly investigate a transmission mechanism. I investigated whether a social culture of increased affiliation could be initiated in marmosets through the long-term playback, of positive calls, or of video of positive behaviour. The results were consistent with a relatively long-lasting influence of the playback of affiliative calls across several affiliative behaviours. The effect appeared to last substantially beyond the specific hours of playback, between playbacks, and after playback had ceased, potentially indicating a temporary shift in social culture. These results are preliminary but provide some support for the proposal that auditory social contagion may be a transmission mechanism for social culture. The long-term video playback of allogrooming appeared to result in a transitory shift in performance of the identical behaviour (increased allogrooming) after playbacks had ceased. In addition to theoretical implications for social cognition and social culture, my findings have potential practical application for the enhancement of welfare in captive marmosets through sensory, and non-contact social, enrichment.

Visual sub-modalities, such as colour, form and motion perception, are analysed in parallel by three visual “pathways” – the parvocellular (PC), magnocellular (MC) and koniocellular (KC) pathways. This thesis aims to further elucidate some properties of the subcortical pathways for colour vision. The experimental animal used throughout is a New World monkey, the common marmoset Callithrix jacchus. (For complete abstract open document)

Submitted by Automa??o e Estat?stica (sst@bczm.ufrn.br) on 2017-02-13T19:54:01Z No. of bitstreams: 1 DanielSilvaPolari_DISSERT.pdf: 1547318 bytes, checksum: 92ebdd280f0c098be7201ceab8cc41b4 (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Arlan Eloi Leite Silva (eloihistoriador@yahoo.com.br) on 2017-02-14T21:42:04Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 1 DanielSilvaPolari_DISSERT.pdf: 1547318 bytes, checksum: 92ebdd280f0c098be7201ceab8cc41b4 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2017-02-14T21:42:04Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 DanielSilvaPolari_DISSERT.pdf: 1547318 bytes, checksum: 92ebdd280f0c098be7201ceab8cc41b4 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2016-03-04 / Coordena??o de Aperfei?oamento de Pessoal de N?vel Superior (CAPES) / Consci?ncia como fen?meno biol?gico pode consistir de diferentes estados sensoriais, sentimentos e emo??es. Comportamentos especializado, a??es sofisticadas de comunica??o, meta-cogni??o, intera??o social, orienta??o especial, use de mapas mentais para navega??o e mem?ria espaciais, apontam para tipos diferentes de processamentos consciente em g?neros que n?o o Homo. O presente trabalho busca identificar a auto-percep??o em diferentes esp?cies, com testes do espelho em Callithrix jacchus e com testes de auto-localiza??o em Dinoponera quadriceps. O comportamento de C. jacchus no espelho foi catalogado utilizando dois protocolos diferentes: com marca e sem marca. A capacidade de navega??o de D. quadriceps durante o forrageio, foi calculada considerando tr?s diferentes categorias: (1) acesso livre ao ninho/recurso, (2) acesso direto bloqueado por objeto opaco; e 3) bloqueado por objeto transparente. Nossos resultados apontam para auto-percep??o e mambas as esp?cies, com C. jacchus apresentando comportamentos de verifica??o de conting?ncia, auto-observa??o, al?m de utilizar a imagem refletida para observar o ambiente e reagir a marca. D. quadriceps foram capazes de perceber sua pr?pria localiza??o no ambiente e calcular caminhos curtos at? a col?nia ap?s obter o recurso alimentar, em todos os tr?s tipos de testes. Aqui n?s apresentamos evid?ncia de estados conscientes em outras esp?cies que n?o vertebrados. / Consciousness, as a biological phenomenon, may consists of states of feeling, sensation or awareness. Specialized behaviour, sophisticated actions of communication, metacognition, social interaction, spatial orientation, the use of mental maps for navigation, and spatial memory, all point to conscious processing in genus other than Homo. This work aims to identify self-awareness states in two different species: using mirror self-recognition tests in Callithrix jacchus, and using self-perception tests in Dinoponera quadriceps. Displays of C. jacchus self-recognition using a mirror, were appraised with two protocols: no mark and with mark. D.quadriceps navigational capability displays during foraging trips to food resource, were appraised considering three different tests categories: (1) free access, (2) blocked by opaque object; and 3) blocked by clear object. Our results show self-perception in both studied species. With marmosets displaying contingency check behaviour to the specular image, self-observation, environmental exploration using the mirror as a tool and little, but significant mark reactions. Tocandiras were able to perceive its own location and to calculate short return paths to the colony after obtaining the food resource in all three types of tests. Here we provide further evidence of conscious states for species other than vertebrates.

Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior - CAPES / Mammals play a fundamental part in the maintenance of the environment in which they live in, their many ecological interactions act as important regulators of diversity in Tropical Forests. An “ecologically fit” mammal community preserves a higher number of essential ecological relationships that sustain the biodiversity. In this sense, mammal population studies, such as density and its relations to habitat structure, might indicate the conservation status of a community in an area, allowing the formulation of improved conservation strategies. Mammal densities are influenced by a series of factors: (1) intrinsic, such as biomass and niche requirements; (2) ecological relations, as competitive exclusion; and, (3) of habitat, such as structure and quality. The present study aimed to estimate the large and medium-sized mammal densities in an Atlantic Forest remnant, and verify possible habitat preferences. The study area, Fazenda Rio Fundo (FRF), is an 800ha arboreal Restinga fragment, with a great variety of habitats. Between june 2015 and march 2016, 401 km were walked in four transects for the census method. For the habitat structure measure, eleven sample squares (20 x 5 m) were stablished, and DBH, canopy height and canopy openness values were registered. The floristic composition varied among the phytophysiognomies, and significant diferences of canopy height (p=0,000002) and canopy openness (p=0,03) were found between the habitats – Grota, Rebrota and Tabuleiro. We registered 96 visualisations of eight species during censos work. The species with more number of sightings were Dasyprocta sp. (n = 29; 13,07 ind./km²), Callicebus coimbrai (n = 27; 12,76 ind./km²), Callithrix jacchus (n = 21; 29,95 ind./km²) and Sapajus xanthosternos (n = 11; 4,39 ind./km²). The other four species sighted during census, had a low number of total visualisations (n ≤ 4) so were excluded from the density analysis. We indentified a preference for the Mature Forest habitat (Grota), for all analysed mammal except Dasyprocta sp. Density diferences seems to be related to habitat structure and floristic caracteristics, resource availability and the niche requirements of each species. / Mamíferos possuem papel fundamental na manutenção do meio em que vivem. Suas diversas interações ecológicas atuam como importantes reguladoras da diversidade das florestas tropicais. Uma comunidade de mamíferos “ecologicamente saudável” preserva um maior número de relações ecológicas, essenciais para a manutenção da biodiversidade. Neste sentido, estudos com parâmetros populacionais das espécies de mamíferos, como a densidade e suas relações com a estrutura do habitat, podem indicar o status de preservação da comunidade em uma determinada área, possibilitando a formulação de melhores estratégias para a conservação. As densidades de mamíferos são influenciadas por: (1) fatores intrínsecos, como biomassa e requerimentos de nicho; (2) relações ecológicas, como exclusão competitiva e predação; e (3) características do habitat, como estrutura e qualidade. O presente estudo teve como objetivo estimar a densidade de mamíferos de um fragmento de Mata Atlântica de Sergipe, e verificar suas relações com a estrutura do habitat. A área de estudo, a Fazenda Rio Fundo (FRF), é um fragmento de aproximadamente 800 ha de Restinga Arbórea, compreendendo uma grande variedade de habitats. Entre junho de 2015 e março de 2016, foram percorridos 401 km nos quatro transectos definidos, para amostragem de densidade de mamíferos arborícolas e de médio porte através do método de Transecção Linear e analisadas no software Distance. Para medir a diversidade vegetal e estrutura do habitat foram amostradas 11 parcelas (20 x 5 m), e registrados o CAP, altura de dossel e porcentagem de abertura de dossel. A composição florística variou entre as fitofisionomias, e diferenças significativas na altura de dossel (p=0,000002) e na abertura de dossel (p=0,03) entre os habitats – Grota, Rebrota e Tabuleiro. Foram registradas 96 visualizações de oito espécies de mamíferos, durante o censo. As espécies com maior número de registros foram Dasyprocta sp. (n = 29; 13,07 ind./km²), Callicebus coimbrai (n = 27; 12,76 ind./km²), Callithrix jacchus (n = 21; 29,95 ind./km²) e Sapajus xanthosternos (n = 11; 4,39 ind./km²). As outras quatro espécies observadas no censo tiveram um número de registro muito baixo (n ≤ 4) e não foram incluídas nas análises de densidade. Foi identificada uma preferência pelo habitat de Floresta Madura (Grota) para os mamíferos avaliados, com exceção de Dasyprocta sp. As diferenças nas densidades parecem estar atreladas a características estruturais, florísticas, de disponibilidade de recurso e dos requerimentos de cada espécie.

No / Spermatogenesis is characterized by the succession in time and space of specific germ cell associations (stages). There can be a single stage (e.g., rodents and some macaques) or more than one stage (e.g., chimpanzee and human) per tubular cross section. We analyzed the organization of the seminiferous epithelium and quantified testicular germ cell production and apoptosis in a New World primate, the common marmoset (Callithrix jacchus). Tubule cross sections contained more than one stage, and the human six-stage system could be applied to marmoset spermatogenesis. Stereological (optical disector) analysis (n = 5) revealed high spermatogenic efficiency during meiosis and no loss of spermatids during spermiogenesis. The conversion of type A to type B spermatogonia was several-fold higher than that reported for other primates. Highest apoptotic rates were found for S-phase cells (20%) and 4C cells (15%) by flow cytometric analysis (n = 6 animals); histological analysis confirmed spermatogonial apoptosis. Haploid germ cell apoptosis was <2%. Marmoset spermatogenesis is very efficient and involves substantial spermatogonial proliferation. The prime determinants of germ cell production in primates appear to be proliferation and survival of spermatogonia rather than the efficiency of meiotic divisions. Based on the organizational similarities, common marmosets could provide a new animal model for experimental studies of human spermatogenesis.

Die vorsätzliche Freisetzung von Variola Virus (VARV) und schwere Erkrankungen des Menschen durch zoonotische Affen- (MPXV) und Kuh- (CPXV) pocken Viren stellen nach wie vor eine Bedrohung für die Bevölkerung dar. Klassische Pockenimpfstoffe bergen die Gefahr einer schweren Erkrankung. Deshalb ist die Entwicklung neuer Impfstoffe und Therapeutika von entscheidender Bedeutung. Deren Wirksamkeit und Sicherheit muss zunächst in verschiedenen Tiermodellen bewiesen werden. Existierende Makakken-Primatenmodelle leiden unter sehr artifiziellen Bedingungen der letalen Krankheitsinduktion durch VARV oder MPXV. Aus diesem Grund wurde das Calpox Virus/Krallenaffen-modell etabliert, welches auf einem CPXV aus natürlich infizierten Neuweltaffen (Marmosets) basiert. Das neue Modell hat drei wesentliche Vorteile: Die Arbeit mit Calpox Virus kann unter Sicherheitsstufe 2 durchgeführt werden und ist folglich einfacher in der Handhabung. 2. Die intranasale (i.n.) Infektion von Marmosets (Krallenaffen; Callithrix jacchus) spiegelt den natürlichen Infektionsweg von VARV wieder. Infizierte Affen entwickelten Pocken ähnliche Symptome und verstarben innerhalb von 2-3 Tagen nach Auftreten erster Symptome. Hohe Viruslasten wurden im Blut, Speichel und allen untersuchten Organen nachgewiesen. 3. Die i.n. Titration des Calpox Virus ergab eine 50 % Affen-Infektions-Dosis (MID50) von 8.3x102 pfu. Diese ist um den Faktor 10000 niedriger als in anderen Pocken-Primatenmodellen. Neun bis zehn Wochen nach einer Immunisierung mit dem Lister-Elstree Impfstoff waren alle Krallenaffen gegen eine letale Dosis des Calpox Virus (10 MID50) geschützt. Damit konnte der Nutzen des Calpox Virus/Krallenaffen-modells für die Erforschung neuer Impfstoffe gezeigt werden. Das Calpox Virus/Krallenaffen-modell überwindet wesentliche Nachteile bestehender Primatenmodelle und ist somit ein geeignetes Model für die Evaluierung von neuen Impfstoffen, Impfstrategien und antiviralen Therapien. / The intentional re-introduction of Variola virus (VARV), the agents of smallpox, into the human population remains of concern today. Moreover, zoonotic infections with Cowpox (CPXV) and Monkeypox virus (MPXV) cause severe diseases in humans. Smallpox vaccines presently available can have severe adverse effects that are no longer acceptable. The efficacy and safety of new vaccines and antivirals have to be demonstrated by different animal models. The existing primate models, using VARV and MPXV, need very high viral doses that have to be applied intravenously to induce a lethal infection in macaque monkeys. To overcome these drawbacks, the main objective of this study was to develop a primate model in which a smallpox-like disease could be induced by a CPXV virus designated calpox virus which was isolated from a lethal orthopox virus (OPV) outbreak in New World monkeys (marmosets). The new non-human primate model has three major advantages: 1. Working with calpox virus is less challenging and can be done under bio-safety-level two. 2. Mimicking the natural route of VARV infection, intranasally infected marmosets (Callithrix jacchus) reproducibly developed clinical symptoms of an OPV infection and died within two to three days after onset of the first symptoms. High viral loads of calpox virus were detected in blood, saliva and all analyzed organs. 3. Intranasal titration of the virus resulted in a 50 % monkey infectious dose (MID50) of 8.3x102 pfu, a lethal infectious dose 10,000 lower than those used in any other primate model. Moreover, we showed the aptitude of the primate model for the testing of new vaccines since nine to ten weeks after immunization with Vaccinia virus Lister-Elstree marmosets were completely protected against intranasal challenge with 10 MID50 of calpox virus. As the calpox virus/marmoset model overcomes major limitations of current primate models it is suitable to evaluate new vaccines, new vaccination strategies and antiviral therapies.

Adipositas ist eine polymorphe chronische Erkrankung mit epidemischer Prävalenz. Im katabolen Leptin-Melanocortin-Signalweg ist das Proopiomelanocortin Gen (POMC) ein zentrales Element, das bei Dysfunktion massive Adipositas bewirken kann. Auch eine kürzlich identifizierte intragenische Methylierungsvariante des POMC wurde mit Adipositas assoziiert und deutet somit auf eine mögliche epigenetische Modulation des Gewichtsphänotyps hin. Zur Aufklärung der Relevanz, Stabilität und Entwicklung dieser epigenetischen Modifikation wurden die Funktionalität, Ontogenese und Phylogenese der POMC DNA-Methylierung untersucht. In vitro Analysen zeigten DNA-Methylierungsabhängige Promoteraktivität beider CpG-Inseln (CGIs) des POMC. Diese hier erstmals beschriebene Transkriptionsaktivität der intragenischen CGI weist auf einen alternativen Promoter des POMC hin. Hinsichtlich der Ontogenese konnten in Mensch und Maus postnatal stabile DNA-Methylierungsmuster mit interindividueller Konservierung für beide CGIs des POMC identifiziert werden. Zusätzlich erwiesen sich Gewebeunabhängigkeit der DNA-Methylierungsmuster und ihre pränatale Ausbildung zwischen dem Blastocystenstadium und der frühen Organogenese in der Maus. Die POMC DNA-Methylierungsmuster upstream des Exon3 unterscheiden sich in Mensch und Maus. Der mögliche Einfluss von primatenspezifischen Alu-Elementen im Intron2 des POMC hierauf wurde in verschiedenen Primatenfamilien analysiert. Die Ergebnisse zeigen eine bedingte Assoziation der Alu-Elemente mit der DNA-Methylierung in der entsprechenden Region, lassen jedoch auch weitere Einflussfaktoren vermuten. Insgesamt zeigt diese Arbeit, dass die POMC DNA-Methylierung artspezifisch konserviert ist und in der frühen Embryogenese, vermutlich Alu-abhängig, ausgebildet wird. Dabei könnten stochastische Variationen der DNA-Methylierung die POMC-Aktivität beeinflussen und somit das Risiko für Adipositas erhöhen. / Obesity is a polymorphic chronic disease with epidemic prevalence. Within the catabolic leptin-melanocortin signaling pathway pre-proopiomelanocortin (POMC) is a pivotal element. Dysfunction of POMC, e.g. due to mutations, can cause severe obesity. Moreover, a recently identified intragenic methylation variant of POMC was found to be associated with obesity. Therefore, this indicates potential epigenetic modulation of the weight phenotype. To gain further insight into the relevance, stability, and origin of this epigenetic modification, the functionality, ontogenesis, and phylogenesis of the POMC DNA methylation patterns were analyzed. In vitro analyses revealed DNA methylation-dependent promoter activity of both CpG islands (CGIs) of POMC. Thereby, the intragenic CGI was identified as a potential alternative promoter of POMC, which has not been described before. Regarding the ontogenesis, postnatally stable POMC DNA methylation patterns with interindividual conservation were detected for both CGIs in humans and mice. In addition, it was observed that the POMC DNA methylation patterns are non-tissue-specific, stable upon long time administration of a high fat diet, and develop prenatally between the blastocystal stage and the early organogenesis. The POMC DNA methylation pattern upstream of exon3 differs in humans and mice. A possible influence of primate-specific Alu elements within the intron2 region of POMC was analyzed in various primate families. Results evince a partial association of the Alu elements with the DNA methylation pattern in this particular region, but also suggest an influence of additional factors. Overall, this work demonstrates that DNA methylation of the POMC locus is species-specific highly conserved, and that it is established during early embryogenesis, possibly Alu-triggered. In the course of this, stochastic variances of the POMC DNA methylation might influence the POMC activity and consequently alter the risk to develop obesity.

No description available.

There are numerous guidelines recommending that captive primates live in complex environments in which they have the opportunity to make choices and the ability to control aspects of the environment, despite the lack of quantitative evidence to suggest these qualities improve welfare. Complexity, choice and control (the ‘Three Cs’) are inter-related and therefore it is complicated to separate their effects. The main aim of this thesis was to examine how the ‘Three Cs’ affect welfare, using the common marmoset (Callithrix jacchus) as a model. Behavioural measures and preference tests were used to determine the impact and significance of the ‘Three Cs’ on welfare. Experimental manipulations were natural (i.e. access to outside runs), or unnatural (e.g. pressing a button to control additional illumination). In a series of different studies, marmosets were moved to larger and more complex enclosures, were allowed to choose between indoor cages and outdoor complex enclosures and were able to control additional white light or coloured lights in their home enclosures. The results of these studies show that appropriate levels of each of the ‘Three Cs’ had a positive influence on the welfare of the marmosets, especially on youngsters. Although having control over light, and increased illumination itself improved welfare, providing a choice of access to outside runs (which were more complex and allowed the marmosets greater control over their activities) resulted in the greatest welfare improvement for marmosets of all ages. Loss of access, or control, did not appear to have a negative impact. The marmosets were housed in pairs or in family groups, in the different studies. A cross-study comparison shows that the composition of the groups affected the behavioural response of adult marmosets to environmental enrichment. Unexpectedly, it was also found that, when housed in standard laboratory conditions, adult marmosets were more relaxed when housed in pairs than when housed with their offspring. A secondary aim of the thesis was to quantify welfare indicators and activity budgets of common marmosets in a range of different social and physical contexts, and to compare this with the behaviour of wild marmosets, to increase our understanding of what is “normal” in captive situations. It is concluded that it is critical to sub-divide locomotion and inactivity into different levels to interpret these measures accurately. Levels of calm locomotion increased in enriched environments, while levels of relaxed inactivity and scent marking decreased. A number of recommendations for the care and housing of marmosets are made.