Epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) is frequently overexpressed in the majority of triple negative breast cancer patients (TNBC). However, the molecular determinants behind their limited response to EGFR-targeted therapies are poorly understood. Here, both the acute and chronic responses of TNBC to the EGFR-targeted therapy, cetuximab (CTX), have been investigated. The expression of EGFR has been analyzed in a cohort of 2000 breast cancer tumours from the public dataset as well as in a panel of breast cancer cell lines. Furthermore, the response of TNBC cell lines to CTX has been investigated using conventional biochemical methods. Finally, a comprehensive transcriptomic profiling of an acquired CTX-resistant TNBC model by RNA sequencing has been performed to understand the molecular determinants of acquired CTX resistance. The results confirmed that EGFR is highly expressed in TNBC in comparison to non-TNBC breast cancer tumours and cell lines, which was associated with adverse clinical outcomes. Targeting EGFR in TNBC cell lines using CTX failed to completely inhibit the EGFR signalling pathway and was associated with an increase in ADAMs-mediated release of endogenous EGFR ligands, EGF and TGFα. Inhibition of ADAMs (ADAM10 and ADAM17) significantly enhanced the anti tumour efficacy of CTX both in vitro and in vivo. Furthermore, transcriptomic profiling of the acquired CTX-resistant TNBC cell line (MDA-MB-468CR) revealed an activation of several key oncogenic pathways and genes, including the TGFβ/BMP pathway. Blocking BMP receptors (BMPRs) restored the sensitivity of resistant cells to CTX treatment. Collectively, current findings offer alternative strategies that could enhance the CTX response in TNBC. We further reported that simultaneous targeting of both EGFR and BMPR pathways could overcome CTX resistance, which might have important implications for the treatment of TNBC.

O carcinoma de células escamosas (SCC) é um tumor maligno de origem epitelial no qual o receptor de fator de crescimento epidermal (EGFR) está superexpresso e associado a malignização. O cetuximabe é um anticorpo monoclonal, capaz de se ligar seletivamente ao EGFR. A combinação de cetuximabe com o quimioterápico hidrofílico 5-fluorouracil (5-FU) é utilizada na clínica pela via intravenosa e é associada a efeitos colaterais. A administração tópica de 5-FU também é realizada a partir de cremes convencionais, porém sua eficácia é limitada a doenças pré-cancerosas e o carcinoma basocelular. Estima-se que a conjugação do cetuximabe à superfície de lipossomas, os quais podem ser administrados na pele em associação a um método físico, como a iontoforese, seja capaz de direcionar a liberação do 5-FU para as camadas da pele onde os tumores estão presentes, além de aumentar o uptake celular em linhagem EGFR positiva, viabilizando o tratamento tópico de SCC. Assim, o objetivo do presente trabalho foi avaliar a influência do cetuximabe conjugado a um lipossoma (imunolipossoma) na penetração cutânea passiva e iontoforética do 5-FU e na regressão do SCC. Para tanto, um método analítico e um método bioanalítico foram desenvolvidos e validados para quantificação de 5-FU. Lipossomas convencionais foram preparados a partir de diferentes composições lipídicas, métodos de preparo e razão fármaco/lipídeo para selecionar aqueles que encapsulassem maior porcentagem de 5-FU. Lipossomas compostos por 1,2-distearoil-sn-glicero-3-fosfocolina e colesterol (DSPC:Chol, 55:45), preparados por hidratação do filme lipídico, na razão fármaco/ lipídeo 0,1, de aproximadamente 140 nm, foram escolhidos por encapsularem cerca de 50% de 5-FU. Para obtenção dos imunolipossomas, o cetuximabe foi primeiramente conjugado ao lipídeo DSPE acoplado ao ligante maleimida(polietilenoglicol)-2000 (DSPE-PEG-Mal), resultando em 94% de eficiência de conjugação. Os imunolipossomas foram então obtidos da mesma forma que os lipossomas e apresentaram tamanho e porcentagem de encapsulação do 5-FU semelhante a apresentada pelos lipossomas. Estudo in vitro em linhagem EGFR positiva (A431) mostrou sinergismo entre 5-FU e imunolipossoma, resultando em valores de IC50 cerca de 3 vezes menores do que o apresentado pelo 5-FU em solução. O uptake celular do imunolipossoma foi 3,5 vezes maior do que o do lipossoma. Nos estudos de penetração cutânea in vitro observou-se que, em relação a uma solução de 5-FU, lipossomas e imunolipossomas diminuíram a quantidade de 5- FU que atravessou a pele. A iontoforese aumentou a penetração do 5-FU a partir de todas as formulações. Neste caso, o acúmulo de 5-FU na epiderme viável, onde os tumores estão presentes, foi duas vezes maior quando este estava encapsulado no imunolipossoma em relação ao lipossoma. In vivo, as formulações foram administradas por via subcutânea ou tópica usando iontoforese em modelo xenográfico de SCC. O tratamento com os imunolipossomas diminuiu o crescimento tumoral em mais de 60% em relação ao controle e em torno de 50% em relação aos tratamentos com solução e lipossoma de 5-FU. A administração tópica por iontoforese apresentou maior redução tumoral do que a subcutânea quando os tumores foram tratados com solução de 5-FU e lipossomas, mas foi igualmente eficaz para os imunolipossomas. Análise imunohistológica revelou que o potencial de proliferação celular foi reduzido para os grupos tratados. Desta forma, a administração por iontoforese de imunolipossomas contendo 5-FU é uma estratégia promissora para o tratamento tópico de SCC / Squamous cell carcinoma (SCC) is a malignant tumor of epithelial origin in which the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) is overexpressed and associated with malignization. Cetuximab is a monoclonal antibody, able to selectively bind EGFR. The combination of the chemotherapy with the hydrophilic drug 5-fluorouracil (5- FU) and cetuximab is applied in the clinic by intravenous injection and is associated with side effects. Cetuximab conjugation onto liposomal surface, which can be administered topically onto the skin using physical methods, such as iontophoresis, is able to direct 5-FU release to the skin layers where tumors are localized and to increase cellular uptake in EGFR positive cells, making possible the topical treatment of SCC. Thus, the objective of this work was to investigate the influence of cetuximab conjugation to liposomes (immunoliposomes) in the passive and iontophoresis skin penetration of 5-FU and SCC regression. For this purpose, an analytical and a bioanalytical method were developed and validated for 5-FU quantification. Then, conventional liposomes were prepared using different lipid compositions, preparation methods and drug to lipid ratios in order to select those able to load higher percentages of 5-FU. Liposomes composed by 1,2-Distearoylsn- glycero-3-phosphocholine and cholesterol (DSPC:Chol, 55:45) prepared by the thin lipid film hydration with drug/lipid ratio 0.1 with approximately 140 nm, were chosen because they encapsulated about 50% of 5-FU. For the obtainment of immunoliposomes, cetuximab was first coupled to the lipid DSPE linked to maleimide (polyethylene glycol)-2000 (DSPE-PEG-Mal) as an anchor for the antibody conjugation, resulting in 94% coupling efficiency. The immunoliposomes were obtained similarly to liposomes, with similar particle size and loading efficiency of 5-FU. In vitro studies using EGFR positive cells (A431) showed synergism for 5-FU and cetuximab, resulting in IC50 values about 3 times lower than 5-FU solution. Cellular uptake of immunoliposomes increased 3.5-fold compared to the liposomes. In vitro skin penetration studies revealed that, compared to the 5-FU solution, liposomes and immunoliposomes reduced the amount of 5-FU that passed through the skin. Iontophoresis increased the amount of 5-FU retained in viable epidermis for all formulations. In this case, the amount of 5-FU in viable epidermis, where tumors are localized, was 2 times higher when it was encapsulated in immunoliposomes compared to liposomes. In vivo, the formulations were administered subcutaneously or topically with iontophoresis in xenograft animal model of SCC. Treatment with immunoliposomes reduced tumor growth more than 60% compared to the negative control and about 50% compared to the treatments with 5-FU solution and liposomes. The topical administration using iontophoresis resulted in improved tumor reduction compared to the subcutaneous administration when tumors were treated with 5-FU solution and liposomes, but was equally effective for the immunoliposomes. The histological analysis showed the reduction of cellular proliferation for the treated groups. In conclusion, the administration of immunoliposomes containing 5-FU using iontophoresis is a promising strategy for the topical treatment of SCC

La P-glycoprotéine (P-gp) est une protéine transmembranaire de la famille des ATP binding cassette transporteurs. Elle est impliquée dans l’efflux du milieu intracellulaire vers le milieu extracellulaire d’une grande variété de médicaments anticancéreux. Elle peut être responsable de la diminution de la biodisponibilité orale et de la concentration intra-tumorale des médicaments qui en sont substrats. Elle peut notamment être surexprimée par les cellules cancéreuses des adénocarcinomes du colon naïfs de tout traitement, suggérant une résistance naturelle de cette tumeur et également après une chimiothérapie. Notre premier travail in vivo a documenté le caractère substrat de la P-gp de l’evérolimus, inhibiteur de mTOR indiqué dans divers cancers (rein, tumeurs neuroendocrines d’oringine pancréatique et sein), jusqu’à maintenant uniquement étudié dans des modèles in vitro. Une augmentation significative de l’AUC de l’evérolimus administré par voie orale est observée chez des souris mdr1a-/b- comparées à des souris mdr1a+/1b+. Une amélioration significative de la biodisponibilité orale de l’evérolimus est aussi notée chez des souris prétraitées par le lapatinib (Tyverb®), inhibiteur des tyrosines kinases (EGFR et HER2) indiqué dans le cancer du sein, par rapport aux souris ayant reçu l’evérolimus seul. Ce résultat est accompagné d’une inhibition de l’expression de la P-gp intestinale par le lapatinib mesurée par la technique de Western Blot. Enfin, une étude préclinique menée chez des souris porteuses d’une xénogreffe colorectale mutée KRAS montre une activité anti-tumorale certaine des deux médicaments utilisés seuls et en schéma séquentiel. Notre seconde étude a montré pour la première fois que le cétuximab (Erbitux®), anticorps anti-EGFR, inhibe la fonctionnalité de la P-gp dans deux lignées cellulaires surexprimant la P-gp (les cellules IGROV-1 et les HEK P-gp) indépendamment de leur statut EGFR et entraîne chez des souris porteuses d’une xénogreffe colorectale une augmentation significative de la biodisponibilité orale et de la concentration intra-tumorale du SN-38, métabolite actif de l’irinotécan (Campto®) administré par voie orale. Le cétuximab étant prescrit en association avec l’irinotécan chez des patients atteints d’un cancer colorectal métastasé, initialement réfractaire à l’irinotécan, ces résultats pourraient en partie expliquer la réversion de la résistance à l’irinotécan par le cétuximab par une inhibition de l’efflux de la P-gp. Grâce à l’étude de deux associations de médicaments «lapatinib-evérolimus» et «cétuximab-irinotécan», nous avons démontré l’intérêt de l’étude de l’inhibition de la P-gp avec les traitements les plus récents, notamment son rôle dans l’amélioration de la biodisponibilité orale de chimiothérapies utilisées par voie orale. / P-glycoprotein (P-gp) is a membrane transporter and belongs to the ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporter super family. P-gp decreases oral bioavailability of substrate drugs and can cause multidrug resistance in tumor cells by decreasing intracellular drug levels. P-gp is overexpressed in colorectal carcinoma naturally resistant to chemotherapy. The aim of our first study was to document the in vivo transport of everolimus (Afinitor®), a mTOR inhibitor, by P-gp. A significant increase of everolimus oral bioavaibility was observed in mdr1a-/1b- mice compared to the wild type. In addition, a significant increase of everolimus oral bioavaibility was showed in mice that received a lapatinib pre-treatment (a dual EGFR/HER2 tyrosine kinase inhibitor) compared to mice that received everolimus alone. These results were accompanied by a significant decrease of P-gp expression in duodenum segment in lapatinib pre-treated group as compared to control group. Finally, each drug given alone or in association showed a major antitumor activity in a xenograft model of human colorectal carcinoma with KRAS mutation. Our second study showed for the first time that cetuximab (Erbitux®), a monoclonal antibody directed towards EGFR, inhibits P-gp functionality in two cell lines overexpressing P-gp (IGROV-1 and HEK P-gp cells) independently of EGFR status and leads to significant increases of oral bioavailability and intratumoral concentration of SN-38, the active metabolite of irinotecan (Campto®) in mice bearing colorectal carcinoma xenograft. Cetuximab is used in combination with irinotecan in patients with metastatic colorectal cancer, initially refractory to irinotecan, our results may partly explain the reversion of resistance to irinotecan by inhibiting P-gp efflux by cetuximab. In conclusion, our results showed the interest to study the effect of recent anticancerous drugs on P-gp, including their ability to improve oral bioavailability of oral chemotherapy used.

EGFR is a transmembrane tyrosine kinase receptor from the HER family which, upon ligand stimulation, activates different signaling pathways involved in tumorogenesis. EGFR can be targeted by monoclonal antibodies, as cetuximab and panitumumab, which bind to EGFR preventing ligand stimulation of the receptor. Cetuximab and panitumumab are approved for colorectal cancer treatment. However, its clinical success is uniformily limited by the development of acquired drug resistance. We describe a new mechanism of acquired resistance to cetuximab in colorectal cancer that was due to a missense mutation in the EGFR ectodomain (S492R mutation). Upon chronic exposure to cetuximab, colorectal cancer cell lines acquired S492R mutation and became resistant to the treatment. We observed that cetuximab was not able to bind mutant EGFR. Notably, this amino acid change did not affect the ability of panitumumab to bind to EGFR, and panitumumab effectively suppressed growth of mutant cells. EGFRS492R mutation was detected in 2 out of 10 tumor specimens from patients following progression on cetuximab. One of these patients was subsequently treated with single agent panitumumab yielding a partial response. The S492R mutation defines a novel biomarker of resistance to cetuximab but not to panitumumab in colorectal cancer / EGFR és un receptor transmembrana tirosina cinasa de la família HER el qual, després de l’estimulació mitjançant lligands, activa vies de senyalització involucrades en processos tumorogènics. L’EGFR es pot inhibir amb anticossos monoclonals, com cetuximab i panitumumab, que s’uneixen al receptor prevenint-ne l’activació per part dels lligands. Cetuximab i panitumumab estan aprovats per al tractament del càncer colorectal, però el seu ús es veu limitat per el desenvolupament de resistència adquirida al tractament. Nosaltres describim un mecanisme de resistència adquirida a cetuximab en càncer colorectal degut a l’adquisió d’una mutació en el domini extracel•lular de l’EGFR, la mutació S492R. Durant l’exposició crònica a cetuximab, linies cel•lulars de càncer colorectal van adquirir la mutació S492R tornat-se resistents al tractament. Cetuximab no era capaç d’unir-se a l’EGFR mutat. Aquests canvi d’aminoàcid no afectava a l’habilitat que té panitumumab a unir-se al EGFR, pertant, panitumumab suprimia el creixement de les cèl•lules tumorals mutades. Vam detectar la mutació EGFRS492R en 2 de 10 mostres tumorals de pacients que havien recaigut al tractament amb cetuximab. Un d’aquest pacients va ser posteriorment tractat amb panitumumab obtenint-ne una resposta tumoral parcial. La mutació S492R defineix un nou mecanisme de resistència a cetuximab però no a panitumumab en el tractament del càncer colorectal.

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Les facteurs de transcription STAT3 sont activés dans de nombreuses tumeurs et leurs effets sur la prolifération et la survie suggéraient fortement que ces protéines puissent être impliquées à la fois dans la transformation cellulaire et dans l'échappement aux traitements classiques de chimiothérapie.<br />Nous nous sommes donc intéressés aux différents aspects impliquant STAT3 dans la réponse de lignées cellulaires aux agents génotoxiques de chimiothérapie, et plus particulièrement aux inhibiteurs de topoisomérase. Durant ces traitements, STAT3 interagit avec le répresseur transcriptionnel Rb et l'inhibiteur du cycle cellulaire p21. Ces deux protéines inhibent son activité transcriptionnelle, notamment sur les gènes c-myc et cdc25A, et permettent la mise en place de la sénescence induite par les dommages de l'ADN et la catastrophe mitotique. Cependant, en présence d'une activité constitutive de STAT3 induite par l'oncogène v-src, STAT3 empêche l'activation de Rb et de p21, favorise la résistance des cellules aux inhibiteurs de topoisomérase II, et génère de l'instabilité génomique. Finalement,<br />deux inhibiteurs de STAT3, le cetuximab, un anticorps monoclonal dirigé contre l'EGFR, et un inhibiteur de la tyrosine kinase c-src, sensibilisent des cellules colorectales aux inhibiteurs de topoisomérase I. L'inhibition de STAT3 empêche l'activation du gène Eme1 qui induit l'expression d'une protéine de réparation de l'ADN.<br />STAT3 est donc un facteur de résistance aux inhibiteurs de topoisomérase. Sa détection pourrait ainsi permettre de mieux prédire la réponse des patients à ces inhibiteurs, et son inhibition, dans les tumeurs où il est actif, pourrait permettre de les sensibiliser aux inhibiteurs de topoisomérase.

Orientador: Maria Palmira Daflon Gremião / Resumo: Glioblastomas (GBM) representam 77% dos tumores malignos do sistema nervoso central (SNC) e ainda hoje, apesar de todos os avanços na terapia, continua com prognóstico limitado. A existência de barreiras fisiológicas como a barreira hematoencefálica (BHE) representa o principal obstáculo que impede que concentrações adequadas do fármaco atinjam o local de ação. Por suas vantagens anatômicas, uma estratégia proposta para a administração de fármacos destinados ao SNC consiste no uso da via nasal. Além disso, o uso de terapias combinadas utilizando fármacos capazes de agir em diferentes alvos moleculares deve ser considerada para o tratamento de doenças complexas como GBM. O candidato a fármaco ácido alfa-ciano-4-hidroxicinâmico (CHC) e o anticorpo monoclonal cetuximab (CTX) já são explorados devido à capacidade de agir em diferentes alvos moleculares nas células tumorais e aplicados em conjunto, como uma nova abordagem combinada, podem melhorar os resultados terapêuticos. De forma complementar, a utilização de sistemas de liberação baseados em nanotecnologia trará inevitavelmente ganhos terapêuticos à combinação proposta, permitindo que atributos específicos sejam agregados ao sistema e possibilite não somente a administração nasal, como também a associação de diferentes fármacos em um único carreador. Assim, o presente estudo propõe o desenvolvimento de diferentes plataformas poliméricas baseadas em poli(ácido láctico-co-glicólico) (PLGA) e quitosana trimetilada (TMC) ou quito... (Resumo completo, clicar acesso eletrônico abaixo) / Abstract: Glioblastomas (GBM) account for 77% of malignant tumors in the central nervous system (SNC), and today, despite all advances in therapy, remains with a limited prognosis. The existence of physiological barriers as the blood brain barrier (BBB) represents the main obstacle that limits appropriate concentrations of drugs designed to therapy. Due to their anatomical advantages, a strategy proposed for direct delivery to SNC involves the use of the nose-to-brain route. Besides, combination therapy that uses multiple drugs against different molecular targets should be considered for complex diseases such as GBM. Drugs like alpha-cyano-4-hydroxycinnamic acid (CHC) and the monoclonal antibody cetuximab (CTX) are already explored for their capacity to act against different hallmarks of cancer and applied together, as a novel combining approach, might improve therapeutic outcomes. Therefore, advances in nanotechnology-based delivery systems will inevitably bring therapeutic gains to the proposed combination since they enable acquisition of important characteristics desired and also the association of different drugs into a single carrier. Thus, the current study proposes the development of different polymeric platforms based on poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) and trimethyl chitosan (TMC) /chitosan oligosaccharide (OCS) for CHC encapsulation. Both CHC-loaded developed systems (PLGA/TMC and PLGA/OCS) exhibited nanostructure organization of about 300 to 400 nm, containing chitosan o... (Complete abstract click electronic access below) / Doutor

Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis (IUPUI) / Colon rectal cancer (CRC) is one of the most common cancers worldwide. It is characterized by the successive accumulation of mutations in genes controlling epithelial cell growth and differentiation leading to genomic in-stability. This results in the activation of proto-oncogene(K-ras), loss of tumor suppressor gene activity and ab-normality in DNA repair genes. Targeted therapy is a new generation of cancer treatment in which drugs attack targets which are specific for the cancer cell and are critical for its survival or for its malignant behavior. Survival of metastatic CRC patients has approximately doubled due to the development of new combinations of stan-dard chemotherapy, and the innovative targeted therapies, such as monoclonal antibodies against epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) or monoclonal antibodies against vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGFR).The study is to exhibit the need for right drug-right target and provides a proof of principle for potent efficacy of molecular targeted therapy for CRC. We have performed the weighted gene co-expression network analysis for three different patient cohort treated with different targeted therapy drugs. The results demonstrates the variation across different treatment regime in context of transcription factor networks. New significant tran-scription factors have been identified as potential biomarker for CRC cancer including EP300, STAT6, ATF3, ELK1, HNF4A, JUN, TAF1, IRF1, TP53, ELF1 and YY1. The results provides guidance for future omic study on CRC and additional validation work for potent biomarker for CRC.