Trafficking of GPCRs is a dynamic process that is tightly regulated and sometimes defective in human diseases. Therefore it is important to develop new methods to allow simple and quantitative measurement of surface expression of membrane proteins. Here we describe the development and validation of a new assay for quantification of cell surface expression of GPCRs using β-lactamase as a reporter. For this assay we N-terminally fused β-lactamase (βlac) to the β2-adrenergic receptor (β2AR) and GABA b R1 (GBR1). The results obtained by the βlac assay are quantitatively and qualitatively similar to well established ELISA when measuring agonist induced internalization of β2AR. We also show that measurement of GBR1 surface expression with GBR2 co-expression is quantitatively identical between the βlac and ELISA. In conclusion, our results show that our newly developed βlac assay is quantitatively similar while being less expensive, more robust and higher throughput compared to an ELISA.

La ségrégation fidèle des chromosomes est dirigée par le centromère, un locus chromosomique spécialisé qui est requis pour l’assemblage des kinetochores actifs. Les centromères sont marqués épigénétiquement par la présence d’un nucléosome unique qui contient un variant centromérique de l’histone H3 appelé Centromere protein A (CENP-A). Une question fondamentale est comment CENP-A est spécifiquement déposé aux centromères. L’objectif de ma thèse a été d’identifier les facteurs spécifiques de la déposition de CENP-A. Pour identifier les facteurs spécifiques impliqués dans la déposition de CENP-A aux centromères, j’ai utilisé la méthode de purification TAP-TAG à partir d’une fraction nucléaire soluble de cellules HeLa exprimant stablement une copie ectopique de CENP-A (e-CENP-A). J’ai ainsi pu identifié la protéine Holliday Junction Recognition protein (HJURP). En utilisant un siRNA spécifique de HJURP, j’ai montré que la localisation et la déposition de CENP-A étaient fortement affectées. La protéine recombinante HJURP lie de manière stoechiométrique le tétramère CENP-A/H4 mais il ne lie pas le tétramère H3/H4. La liaison se fait grâce à un petit domaine conservé en position N-terminal de HJURP, dénommé CBD (CENP-A binding domain). De plus, j’ai pu mettre en évidence in vitro que HJURP facilitait la déposition du tétramère CENP-A/H4 sur de l’ADN satellite. L’ensemble de mes résultats démontre très clairement que HJURP est la principale chaperone responsable de la déposition de CENP-A aux centromères. / Centromere is a specialized chromosomal locus, where kinetochore assembles, which is required for correct chromosome segregation during cell division. In higher eukaryotes, centromere specification is independent of the DNA sequence and is determined epigenetically by the presence of a unique nucleosome that contains a histone H3 variant, called CENP-A. A fundamental question in centromere biology is that how CENP-A is specifically delivered to and maintained on centromeres. The aim of my thesis was to identify specific chaperone in human, responsible for CENP-A loading to centromeres, by using biochemical and proteomic strategies. To identify CENP-A deposition machinery, I purified the prenucleosomal CENP-A complex from HeLa cells stably expressing epitope tagged CENP-A. By mass spectrometry analysis of proteins present in CENP-A and H3.1 complex, I found HJURP uniquely in CENP-A prenucleosomal complex. Down regulation of HJURP by specific siRNA strongly diminished centromeric localization of CENP-A. Bacteriallyexpressed HJURP specifically binds to the CATD domain of CENP-A, via a highly conserved Nterminal domain, called CBD. Finally, I showed that HJURP is able to facilitate the efficient deposition of CENP-A/H4 tetramer on naked DNA. Taken together, my data demonstrate that HJURP is a key chaperone responsible for the targeting and deposition of newly synthesized CENPA at centromeres.

Despite their name, a number of the cold shock proteins are expressed during normal growth, and not just during cold shock, in several species. The function of these constitutively expressed CspA paralogues is unclear. In Salmonella Typhimurium (a major worldwide cause of gastrointestinal disease) they have been linked to various stress responses and the establishment of virulence. Study of the cold shock proteins as gene regulators is therefore of great interest, and they also have potential as targets for antimicrobial development. CspE in Salmonella Typhimurium is constitutively expressed during normal growth. In order to determine its function, attempts were made to identify the interactions it forms with other cellular proteins. Initially, a proteomic investigation attempted to identify proteins which complex with CspE by in vivo cross-linking and affinity purification followed by mass spectrometry. Although no defined complex was consistently identified, the results suggested a handful of proteins which might interact with CspE in a weak or transient manner. These proteins included many from the nucleoid and ribosomal entry site, hinting at CspE’s cellular localisation. In order to investigate these transient interactions, a bacterial two-hybrid system was employed. Interactions between CspE and HupA, a nucleoid protein identified in the proteomic analysis, were probed, as were interactions between CspE and CsdA, an RNA helicase thought to function co-operatively with CspE. The twohybrid system also allowed investigation of CspE dimerisation, which has been reported in vitro but not investigated in vivo until this study. CspE appears not to interact significantly with either HupA, CsdA, or itself at 37oC. Finally in a further attempt to identify interactions of CspE, a genomic library was created to test CspE interactions by two-hybrid assay with random peptides derived from the whole Salmonella genome. The library was successfully created and screened for evidence of interaction, and revealed an association between CspE and a transcriptional repressor, DeoT. DeoT is a repressor of several genes for catabolic processes, suggesting a role for CspE in the regulation of central metabolism. The findings of this work present a number of novel discoveries and several interesting opportunities for further studies.

Replication of the nonsegmented, plus-stranded RNA genome of Cucumber necrosis tombusvirus (CNV) requires two essential overlapping viral-coded replication proteins, the p33 replication co-factor and the p92 RNA-dependent RNA polymerase. In my thesis I describe (i) the effect of phosphorylation of p33, (ii) the RNA chaperone-like activity of p33, and (iii) the role of HSP70s a host proteins in the viral replication. To test the effect of phosphorylation on p33 function, I used in vitro phosphorylated p33. I found that phosphorylation inhibited the ability of p33 to bind to the viral RNA. Phosphorylation-mimicking mutations rendered p33 nonfunctional in plant protoplasts and in yeast. Based on these results, I propose that the primary function of phosphorylation of p33 is to regulate its RNA binding capacity, which could affect the assembly of new viral replicase complexes, recruitment of the viral RNA template into replication and/or release of viral RNA from replication. Thus, phosphorylation of p33 might help in switching the role of the viral RNA from replication to other processes, such as viral RNA encapsidation and cell-to-cell movement. Small plus-stranded RNA viruses do not code for RNA helicases that would facilitate the proper folding of viral RNAs during replication. Instead, small RNA viruses might use RNA chaperones for replication as shown here for the p33 replication protein. In vitro experiments demonstrated that the purified recombinant p33 facilitated RNA synthesis on plusstranded and double-stranded (ds)RNA templates up to 5-fold. In addition, p33 rendered dsRNA templates sensitive to single-strand specific S1 nuclease, suggesting that p33 can destabilize highly structured RNA. Altogether, the RNA chaperone activity of p33 might perform similar biological functions to the helicases. SSa a yeast HSP70 found in the viral replication complex and shown to facilitate viral replication (Serva and Nagy, 2006)To dissect the mode of action of SSA in the viral replication I used temperature sensitive and deletion mutants. Both showed miss localization of p33 compared to the wild type. Purified SSA rendered non functional bacterial expressed p92 functional in an in vitro replication assay. SSa might play a role in the transportation and assembly of viral replication proteins.

Multiple drug resistance (MDR) has been a severe issue in treatment and recovery from infection.Gram-negative bacteria intrinsically exhibit higher drug tolerance than Gram-positive microbes. In this thesis, two proteins involved in Gram-negative bacterial MDR were studied, AcrB and SurA. Resistance-nodulation-cell division pump AcrAB-TolC is the major MDR efflux system in Gram-negative bacteria and efficiently extrudes a broad range of substances from the cells. To study subtle conformational changes of AcrB in vivo, a reporter platform was designed. Cysteine pairs were introduced into different regions in the periplasmic domain of the protein, and the extents of disulfide bond formation were examined. Using this platform, an inactive mutant, AcrB∆loop, was created that existed as a well-folded monomer in vivo. Next, random mutageneses were performed on a functionally compromised mutant, AcrBP223G, to identify residues that restored the function loss. The mechanism of function restoration was examined. SurA is a periplasmic molecular chaperone for outer membrane biogenesis. Deletion of SurA decreased outer membrane density and bacterial drug resistance. The dependence of SurA function on structural flexibility and stability was examined. In addition, the effect of molecular crowding on SurA interaction with its outer membrane protein substrates was examined.

The AAA+ chaperone Hsp104 mediates the reactivation of aggregated proteins in Saccharomyces cerevisiae and is crucial for cell survival after exposure to stress. Protein disaggregation depends on cooperation between Hsp104 and a cognate Hsp70 chaperone system. Hsp104 forms a hexameric ring with a narrow axial channel penetrating the centre of the complex. In Chapter 2, I show that conserved loops in each AAA+ module that line this channel are required for disaggregation and that the position of these loops is likely determined by the nucleotide bound state of Hsp104. This evidence supports a common protein remodeling mechanism among Hsp100 members in which proteins are unfolded and threaded along the axial channel. In Chapter 3, I use a peptide-based substrate mimetic to reveal other novel features of Hsp104’s disaggregation mechanism. An Hsp104-binding peptide selected from solid phase arrays recapitulated several properties of an authentic Hsp104 substrate. Inactivation of the pore loops in either AAA+ module prevented stable peptide or protein binding. However, when the loop in the first AAA+ was inactivated, stimulation of ATPase turnover in the second AAA+ module of this mutant was abolished. Drawing on these data, I propose a detailed mechanistic model of protein unfolding by Hsp104 in which an initial unstable interaction involving the loop in the first AAA+ module simultaneously promotes penetration of the substrate into the second axial channel binding site and activates ATP turnover in the second AAA+ module. In Chapter 4, I explore the recognition elements within a model Hsp104-binding peptide that are required for rapid binding to Hsp104. Removal of bulky hydrophobic residues and lysines abrogated the ability of this peptide to function as a peptide-based substrate mimetic for Hsp104. Furthermore, rapid binding of a model unfolded protein to Hsp104 required an intact N-terminal domain and ATP binding at the first AAA+ module. Taken together, I have defined numerous structural features within Hsp104 and its model substrates that are crucial for substrate binding and processing by Hsp104. This work provides a theoretical framework that will encourage research in other protein remodeling AAA+ ATPases.

Mémoire numérisé par la Division de la gestion de documents et des archives de l'Université de Montréal.

The Hsp90 chaperone complex associates with the telomerase enzyme, facilitating the assembly of the ribonucleoprotein complex. While previous data from our laboratory indicate that Hsp90 and p23 remain stably associated with (functionally active) telomerase, more recent experiments suggest that these chaperones associate with telomeres independent of telomerase, presumably through a specific interaction with telomere binding proteins. The current study examines the novel interactions between TRF2, TRF1, TIN2 and TPP1 and molecular chaperones (Hsp90, Hsp70, p23). In vitro and in cell experiments have shown an interaction between TRF1 and TRF2 and the molecular chaperones Hsp90 and Hsp70. Inhibition of Hsp90 using drugs that specifically block ATPase activity results in an increased association of TRF1 and TRF2 with Hsp90 to presumably stabilize the telomere associated proteins to the telomere. A definitive explanation as to the mechanisms underlying the chaperone/telomere associated protein interaction has yet to be determined and further studies examining chaperones’ contribution to telomere structure and function are underway. A better understanding of the telomeric proteins and Hsp90 and their roles in nuclear events is important, as both have extremely important functions in the cell. Our current working hypothesis is that chaperone proteins associate with TRF2, TRF1, TIN2 and TPP1 to facilitate telomeric protein-protein interactions and protein-telomere binding in both cancer and normal cells. The interaction between chaperones and telomere binding proteins may eventually provide a better understanding of telomeric structure and function. Defining the mechanisms of telomeric protein regulation is important in the development of new therapeutic approaches for targeting telomeres to induce dysfunction. Clinical trials are underway employing drugs targeting Hsp90 in cancer cells and given the results here, these Hsp90 compounds likely cause telomere alterations.

Mémoire numérisé par la Direction des bibliothèques de l'Université de Montréal.

O gene humano KIAA0090 mapeia uma região cromossômica (1p36.13) com freqüentes aberrações em cânceres humanos e é superexpresso em muitos tipos de tumores. É um gene altamente complexo cujas seqüências de cDNA oriundas de bases de dados públicas apóiam a existência de mais de 20 transcritos alternativos. Sua RefSeq prediz a codificação de uma proteína altamente conservada com 993aa, cujo ortólogo em S. cerevisae (ECM1) foi proposto recentemente atuar no enovelamento de proteínas transmembrana no retículo endoplasmático (RE). O objetivo deste trabalho foi adquirir conhecimento sobre a localização e função da proteína KIAA0090, em células e tecidos normais e tumorais, bem como em células expostas a estresse. Geramos anticorpos policlonais (anti-K2) contra a metade C-terminal da proteína e comparamos seu padrão ao tratamento obtido com o anticorpo (anti-K1), previamente gerado contra a metade N-terminal. A proteína endógena foi localizada primariamente no Golgi e na mitocôndria, dependendo se o anticorpo utilizado foi contra a região N- ou C-terminal, respectivamente. Observamos também, embora menos notável, uma marcação sobreposta com a rede do RE e na margem celular, e variáveis graus de marcação dentro do núcleo e associada a pequenas partículas citoplasmáticas. A análise imunohistoquímica forneceu evidências que a KIAA0090 é ubiquamente epressa. O anti-K2 marcou estruturas semelhantes a Golgi em todo tipo celular, predominando assim naquelas com Golgi mais visíveis, como células secretórias. Observamos para a maioria dos tecidos uma marcação leve a moderada para o anti-K1, mas uma forte marcação foi encontrada em grupos restritos de células, como as células reticulares do timo, epitélio ductal das glândulas da língua e na lâmina basal do epitélio escamoso na zona de transição esôfago-gástrica. Em cortes histológicos de melanoma primário, observamos uma forte marcação para o anti-K1, principalmente em vasos e em células invasoras na margem do tumor, enquanto o anti-K2 mostrou um padrão sugestivo de infiltrado inflamatório e/ou células mesenquimais. Em tecidos de câncer de mama, vimos uma forte marcação nas células de carcinoma ductal em comparação ao epitélio ductal normal para o anti-K2, ao passo que o anti-K1, marcou fortemente vasos e células basais no epitélio de revestimento glandular, tanto no tecido normal como no tumoral. Utilizando uma matriz com amostras teciduais de câncer de mama obtidas de 96 pacientes, observamos uma marcação forte a moderada para o anti-K1 em 84% dos casos, enquanto 16% dos casos não apresentaram marcação. Notamos que os casos positivos para o anti-K1 estavam 100, 85 e 71% entre os casos de grade 1, 2 e 3, respectivamente, sugerindo uma tendência de perda da KIAA0090 associada à progressão do câncer de mama. Foi interessante notar que a brefeldina A e MG132 alteraram os níveis de RNAm da KIAA0090 e levaram à redistribuição da proteína endógena. Outros tratamentos de estresse, incluindo tunicamicina, complexo de rutênio doador de óxido nítrico e etoposídeo, também alteraram o padrão de distribuição da proteína. Este estudo fornece evidências preliminares que corroboram os resultados obtidos de estudos de expressão gênica em larga escala, fortalecendo os indícios de que a KIAA0090 desenvolve um papel na homeostase celular e está envolvida no câncer. / Human KIAA0090 gene maps to a chromosomal region (1p36.13) with frequent aberrations in cancer and is overexpressed in many tumor types. It is a highly complex gene with cDNA sequences in databases supporting the occurrence of more than 20 alternative transcripts. The RefSeq transcript is predicted to encode a highly conserved 993 aa transmembrane protein whose S. cerevisiae ortolog (EMC1) was recently proposed to function on transmembrane protein folding in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). The aim of this work was to gain insight into the localization and function of KIAA0090 protein, in normal and tumor cells and tissues, as well as in cells exposed to stress treatments. We raised a polyclonal antibody (anti-K2) to the C-terminal half of the protein and compared its pattern of staining with an antibody (anti-K1) previously generated in our laboratory to the N-terminal half. The endogenous protein was primarily localized either to mitochondria or Golgi, depending whether the antibody used was to the N- or C-terminal, respectively. Also, less conspicuous staining overlapped with the ER network and cell margin, and variable degrees of labeling was observed within the nucleus and associated to small cytoplasmic particles. Immunohistochemistry survey provided evidence that the KIAA0090 protein is ubiquitously expressed. Anti-K2 labeled in a Golgi-like pattern in every cell type, predominating in those with more conspicuous Golgi, such as secretory cells. Faint to moderate anti-K1 staining was found in most tissues, but very strong staining was seen in restricted groups of cells, such as thymus reticular cells, ductal epithelium of salivary lingual glands and the basal layer of the squamous epithelium in the esophagus-gastric transition zone. In histological sections of primary melanomas, we observed a strong staining for the anti-K1, mostly in vessels and at the invasive tumor margin, while the anti-K2 showed a staining pattern suggestive of infiltrating inflammatory and mesenchymal cells. In breast tissues, stronger staining was seen in ductal carcinoma cells in comparison to normal ductal epithelium for anti-K2 antibody, whereas anti-K1 strongly marked vessels and basal cells in epithelia lining glandular ducts both in normal and tumor tissues. Using a tissue array of breast cancer samples obtained from 96 patients, we observed strong to moderate staining for anti-K1 in 84% of the samples and lack of staining in 16%, interestingly anti-K1 positive cases were 100, 85 and 71% among cases of grades 1, 2 and 3, respectively, suggesting a tendency of KIAA0090 loss associated with breast cancer progression. A positive correlation was found with estrogen receptor expression and the opposite for HER2. Interestingly, Brefeldin A and MG132 altered KIAA0090 mRNA levels and caused endogenous KIAA0090 protein to redistribute. Other stress treatments, including tunicamycin, a ruthenium complex nitric oxide donor and etoposide, also altered KIAA0090 distribution. This study supports the notion that KIAA0090 play a role in cellular homeostasis and is involved in cancer.