acase@tulane.edu / 1 / Marc Petros

Since the mid-1970s, classical scholars have taken a new interest in the study of women in antiquity. Prior to this time, the cultures of Ancient Greece and Rome were studied, like much world history, from a masculine perspective. The literature in the growing field of feminist research is centered on the misogyny of these ancient cultures. Although I agree with their observation that women were subordinate and not afforded the exact same freedom as men, I also believe something is missing in their assessment of women in antiquity, especially with regard to the moral virtues embraced by the culture of the Ancient Greeks and the mythic medium through which those beliefs were transmitted. This thesis presents the characters of Penelope from The Odyssey and Clytaemnestra from The Oresteia as paradigms, or role models, of good and evil for all of Greek society's members. I argue against the view held by some feminist scholars that regard the female characters of Greek myth merely as illustrating the misogyny of Greek culture. Those particular feminist views, in addition to being anachronistic, are based on too narrow an understanding of Greek society and the role that myth plays in that culture. By contrast, I argue that these archetypes represent any member of society and should not be considered, on a scholarly level, merely as examples of misogyny. Because of the important role that myth provided and the equivalent value of the freedom afforded to each sex in fulfilling their societal roles under the conditions of life within Greek culture, these two female characters represent the paradigms of the ideal and the ignoble for that society's entire citizenry. Greek myths and the characters within them are actually expressive of the consequences of the actions of any individual and provide Greek society with a lesson on appropriate behavior within one's role in the larger order of society.

A majority of classic Greek and Roman literature focusing on the subject of the Trojan War and its characters portray a male dominant society in Bronze Age Greece. Homer's Iliad follows the heroes Achilles and Hector, while his Odyssey traces the journey of Odysseus on his way home to Ithaca. However, important female characters are either given short page time or are described in a negative light. My goal in completing this thesis is to give voice to the women who were portrayed in a negative way and to offer possible explanations leading up to this portrayal. I also hope to show that although men fought the war, women had to suffer the consequences. Clytemnestra, as queen of Mycenae, was left alone in her kingdom for years. She watched her husband comply with the sacrifice of her eldest daughter in order for the Greeks to win a victory over Troy. Cassandra knew the future of events, but she could not find believers to help prevent the fall of Troy. After the fall, she became Agamemnon's concubine in a foreign land. Because a majority of the Greek plays and poems are tragedies, neither woman's life has a happy or fulfilling end. It is not my goal to change this, but to give possible explanations as to what led to their fates. In writing The Fates of Clytemnestra and Cassandra, I hope to give readers of Greek and Roman literature and Trojan War enthusiasts another perspective on one of the greatest wars in literary history by showing the trials of these two important women.

My thesis examines the evolution of Clytemnestra’s characterization throughout the generations of receptions of Aeschylus’ Agamemnon. This diachronic study investigates how Clytemnestra’s complex use of gender, specifically her use of masculinity, allows her character to be understood in a different light by a modern audience in contrast to the original perception of her character in antiquity. In analysing the aspects that contribute to Clytemnestra’s ancient characterization, which display her to be dangerously masculine to a fifth-century male audience, the meaning behind her behaviour is also revealed, as it opens a discussion on masculinity in Athens through Clytemnestra’s emasculation of the men around her. The true depth of her character is revealed through a study of Clytemnestra’s modern characterization, as modern audiences are able to recognize the sympathetic aspects of her character in the text, which are reflected through the various feminist adaptations and performances today. The paradox of Clytemnestra’s characterization demonstrates the impact that she has not only on the plot of the play, but also on its survival, as her complexity is what continues to engage audiences in modernity. The findings of this thesis will demonstrate the importance of female characters in Greek tragedy through examining the various layers of Clytemnestra’s character that are uncovered by comparing her characterization in antiquity and modernity, thus proving that her figure, and tragedy overall, has the ability to evolve and influence audiences yet to come through the impact of these dynamic women. / Thesis / Master of Arts (MA)

Από τις εμφανίσεις φαντασμάτων στην αρχαιοελληνική λογοτεχνία, άλλες παρουσιάζονται ως ιστορικά γεγονότα, όπως οι εμφανίσεις φαντασμάτων στον Ηρόδοτο, ενώ άλλες υπηρετούν τους σκοπούς του δημιουργού, ενσωματωμένες σε αμιγώς λογοτεχνικά έργα. Η έρευνά μας, επικεντρωμένη στην δεύτερη ομάδα, εξετάζει επιφάνειες φαντασμάτων στον Όμηρο και την αττική τραγωδία, συγκεκριμένα δε αυτές του Πατρόκλου (Ἰλ. Ψ 59-108), του Δαρείου (Πέρσ. 598-842), της Κλυταιμήστρας (Εὐμεν. 94-139) και του Πολυδώρου (Ἑκ. 1-58). Η επιλογή των συγκεκριμένων περιπτώσεων υπαγορεύεται αφενός από την προαναφερθείσα κοινή λογοτεχνική φύση τους, και αφετέρου από την ομοιότητα στα χαρακτηριστικά των σκηνών, δηλαδή των συνθηκών εμφάνισης (χρόνος, χώρος, κατάσταση του ζωντανού δέκτη), της όψης και της συμπεριφοράς των φαντασμάτων (άυλη εμφάνιση, διατήρηση της μορφής, γνωστικό επίπεδο των φαντασμάτων) και της λειτουργίας τους ως λογοτεχνικών χαρακτήρων. Ειδικότερα, ως προς τις συνθήκες εμφάνισης παρατηρείται ισχυρή σύνδεση των φασματικών χαρακτήρων με την νύχτα και τα όνειρα, με την μοναχικότητα του ζωντανού στον οποίο εμφανίζονται, ενώ ο τόπος της εμφάνισης καθορίζεται σε μεγάλο βαθμό από την ευχέρεια που παρέχει στο φάντασμα να επιτύχει την ικανοποίηση των αιτημάτων του. Αναφορικά με την όψη και την συμπεριφορά τους, η έρευνα αποκάλυψε ότι, παρά την άυλη φύση τους (γνωστή ήδη από τους ακυρωμένους εναγκαλισμούς Αχιλλέα-Πατρόκλου στην Ἰλιάδα και Οδυσσέα-Αντίκλειας στην Ὀδύσσεια), οι ψυχές των νεκρών διατηρούν την μορφή του ζωντανού εαυτού τους, ενίοτε φέροντας και τα θανατηφόρα τραύματά τους. Κατά παρόμοιο τρόπο, η συνομιλία μαζί τους εκτυλίσσεται συνήθως σε φυσιολογικές συνθήκες, σαν να πρόκειται δηλαδή για ζωντανό, με εξαίρεση την άγνοιά τους για ορισμένα γεγονότα του Επάνω κόσμου, κυρίως για όσα έχουν συμβεί κατά την παραμονή τους στον Άδη. Τέλος, το αίτημα του φαντάσματος για ταφή ή εκδίκηση εις βάρος του δολοφόνου του (παράμετροι που καθορίζουν σε μεγάλο βαθμό την εμφάνιση), αποσκοπεί στην αποκατάσταση της τάξης (όσον αφορά το ίδιο το φάντασμα και την διαχείριση του νεκρού σώματός του) και, συνεπώς, προωθεί την πλοκή. / Of the appearances of ghosts in the ancient Greek literature, some are incorporated in historical works (such as in the work of Herodotus), whereas others are part of sheer literary works. Our dissertation focuses on four instances from the second category: the ghosts of Patroclus (Iliad 23.59-108), Darius (Aesch. Persae 598-842), Clytemnestra (Aesch. Eumenides 94-139) and Polydorus (Eurip. Hecuba 1-58). The selection of these instances is not only based on their literary context, but mainly on the correspondence on the matters of conditions, in which they make their appearance, on their look and behaviour and, finally, on their function. Particularly, it seems that there is a close connection between ghosts and the night and dreams, as well as with the loneliness of the living person, who meets them. They also seem to appear in places that facilitates the fulfillment of their demand. As for their look, despite their insubstantial nature (known already from the Iliad and Odyssey), the ghosts maintain the appearance of their body, in the case of the biaiothanatoi bearing the wounds, that caused their death. Their knowledge of the Upper World varies, as they sometimes ignore facts, which have happened after their death. Finally, their demand for burial or vengeance against their murderers aims to the instauration of order and, because of its importance, advances the plot.

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