In this study, The Beach Dewatering System, a relatively recent technology to combat beach erosion, which is proposed as a practical alternative to more traditional shoreline stabilization methods, is investigated and an informative overview on the genesis, development and recent use of this technique is provided. On the basis of the link existing between the elevation of beach groundwater and erosional or accretionary trends at the beach face, a numerical model that simulates groundwater flow in a coastal aquifer under beach drainage is presented. In this model, the seaward boundary of the domain is considered to be tidally fluctuating in a large scale to represent the occurrence of seepage face significantly. The unsteady groundwater flow equation is solved numerically using the method of finite differences. The results clearly showed that the water table being lowered caused the reduction of the seepage face which is the main aim of Beach Dewatering projects. The positional design parameters, i.e. horizontal and vertical location of the drain, are also investigated by utilizing an efficiency index. It is observed that the system efficiency decreased as the drain is shifted landward. The results also indicated that, the efficiency slightly increased with the vertical drain elevation.

Coastal defense structures are built in order to protect valuable coastal regions from the destructive effects of the waves. Due to the cost of coastal defense structures and the economical potential of the coastal regions, failure of such structures could cause loss of high amounts of investment. Therefore in the design and construction of coastal structures, it is of vital importance to achieve an optimum design which is not neither underdesigned nor overdesigned. In this study, Submerged Berm type coastal defense structures with several different cross-sections were tested for stability under storm conditions. Damage analyses of the different models were carried out to compare the structure characteristics under storm conditions and to obtain the most economical and stable cross-section. For the model studies, 5 different models were constructed by using Van der Meer&rsquo / s approach and berm design guidelines. Models were constructed with a model scale of 1:31.08 in the wave flume in the Coastal and Harbor Engineering Laboratory, Civil Engineering Department, METU. The newly designed and optimized berm type structure was proved to be successful and economical.

Tidal power, or the use of tides for electricity production, exists in many forms including tidal barrages, which exploit tidal head differentials, and turbines placed directly in regions with large tidal current velocities. The latter is actively being investigated in many countries around the world as a means of providing renewable and wholly predictable electricity (cf. wind, solar and wave power). The expansion of the in-stream tidal industry is hindered however by several factors including: turbine durability, deployment and maintenance costs, and the lack of abundant locations which meet the necessary current velocities for turbine start-up and economic power production. A new novel type of augmentation device, entitled the ‘Tidal Acceleration Structure’ or TAS (Canadian patent pending 2644792), has been proposed as a solution to the limited number of coastal regions which exhibit fast tidal currents. In preliminary investigations, the TAS, a simple Venturi section consisting of walls extending from the seafloor to above the high water mark in an hourglass shape, was found as able to more than double current velocities entering the device. The results indicated a significant advantage over other current channeling technologies and thus the need for more in-depth investigations. The main objective of the present study was to optimise the design of the TAS and to predict the power that a turbine placed within it could extract from flow. To do this, two principal methods were employed. Firstly, a 1:50 scale model of the TAS was tested and its shape optimised in a 1.5 m wide flume. Secondly, a 3D numerical model (ANSYS Fluent) was used for comparison with the experimental results. During the tests, a TAS configuration was found that could accelerate upstream velocities by a factor of 2.12. In separate tests, turbines were simulated using Actuator Disc Theory and porous plates. The TAS-plate combination was found to be able to extract up to 4.2 times more power from flow than the stand-alone plate, demonstrating that the TAS could provide turbines with a significant advantage in slower currents. Though further research is needed, including the testing of a larger TAS model in conjunction with a small in-stream turbine, the results of this thesis clearly demonstrate the potential of the TAS concept to unlock vast new areas for tidal energy development.

De nos jours, le respect de l'environnement est une obligation dans le cadre de travaux maritimes. Les caissons en béton verticaux à plaques poreuses sont souvent la solution technique privilégiée pour agrandir les ports existants et / ou améliorer l'agitation des bassins. L'empreinte au sol est réduite et la demande en matériaux de carrière est moins importante par rapport aux digues en enrochement classiques. Récemment, des systèmes alternatifs aux caissons en béton verticaux ont été conçus. Les structures amortisseuses de la houle à enrochements verticalisés sont constituées d'une structure métallique entourant des blocs. Ce type de structure offre des avantages environnementaux, une perméabilité aux courants et une bonne performance hydrodynamique. Ce travail de thèse visait à développer un nouveau code 3D-BEM facile à utiliser et intégrant les écoulements en milieux poreux. Des géométries innovantes sont testées comme des gabions espacés avec une chambre d’expansion ou un mélange de plaques poreuses et de milieux poreux.La description des écoulements dans un milieu poreux est une question complexe. Navier-Stokes moyenné au sens de Reynolds (RANS) est le processus mathématique communément utilisé pour modéliser les écoulements en milieux poreux. Ce dernier est considéré comme un milieu continu homogène. L'équation bien connue de Forchheimer étendue décrit les forces volumiques appliquées à l'écoulement par un milieu poreux à travers des coefficients de résistance et d'inertie. Ces recherches ont été l’occasion d’examiner ces coefficients, notamment celui d'inertie mal connu dans le cas d’un milieu poreux. Il joue un rôle majeur pour les écoulements à très faible KC se produisant dans les couches internes des digues poreuses. Une analyse de la littérature sur les écoulements de milieux poreux a été entreprise. Le code numérique appelé Diffra3D a été développé. Il a ensuite été utilisé pour rechercher des coefficients de résistance de milieux poreux à l'aide de données provenant de trois campagnes expérimentales : un test de sloshing sur hexapode et deux études classiques de transmission/réflexion en canal à houle. Celles-ci ont également été l'occasion de tester et de calibrer le code. De nouvelles géométries de structures poreuses ont ensuite été testées expérimentalement et numériquement.Deux nouvelles valeurs de coefficients de résistance d'un milieu poreux sont proposées pour les écoulements à très faibles KC. Certaines caractéristiques intéressantes concernant le coefficient d'inertie CM d'un milieu poreux sont également développées. Ce sujet de recherche mériterait encore d’être approfondi pour tenter de trouver une ou plusieurs loi(s) empirique(s) décrivant l’évolution du coefficient d'inertie dans ce régime spécifique d’écoulement. Le code Diffra3D fonctionne de façon satisfaisante pour modéliser les écoulements en milieu poreux. Il est cependant limité aux vagues à faibles cambrures. Tout l'enjeu est de bien caractériser le milieu poreux étudié. L'utilisation de Diffra3D a permis de montrer que les structures poreuses verticales innovantes, telles que les gabions espacés, ont entièrement leur place en tant que digues amortisseuses de la houle respectueuses de l'environnement. Elles pourraient être couramment utilisées dans le futur. / Nowadays the respect of the environment is an obligation in maritime works. Vertical concrete caissons with porous plates are often the number one technical solution to enlarge existing ports and/or to improve the agitation of the basins. The footprint is reduced and the demand in quarry materials is less important compared to classical riprap breakwaters. Recently, alternative systems to vertical concrete caissons have been designed. Vertical riprap breakwaters are made of a metal framework enclosing blocks. This kind of structure offers environmental benefits, permeability for currents and a good hydrodynamic performance. This thesis work looks at developing a new 3D-BEM code that is easy to use and integrates porous media. Innovative geometries are tested like spaced gabions with damping chamber or a mix of porous plates and porous media.Describing flows in porous media is an complex issue. Volume averaging method is the common mathematical process used to model porous media flows without drawing every grain of a porous medium. The well-known extended Forchheimer equation describes the volumetric forces applied to the flow by a porous medium through resistance and inertial coefficients. These researches were the occasion to look into this coefficients, especially the one of poorly understood inertia in the case of a porous medium. It plays a major role in very low-KC flows currently occurring in porous breakwaters apart from armour layer.First, a literature review on porous media flows was undertaken. In parallel, the numerical code called Diffra3D was produced. It was then used to look for resistance coefficients of porous media through data coming from three experimental campaigns : one sloshing test on hexapode and two classical reflection-transmission studies in a wave tank. These campaigns were also the occasion to test and calibrate the code. New geometries of porous structures were then tested experimentally and numerically. Two new values of resistance coefficients of a porous medium are proposed. Some interesting features concerning the inertia coefficient CM of a porous medium are also developed. In simulations, we observe that the hydrodynamic behaviour of porous structures in low-KC flows is very sensitive to the coefficient of inertia. This research topic would still deserve further studies in order to find empirical law(s) for the inertia coefficient of a porous medium. The code Diffra3D performs well to model porous media flows. However, it is limited to waves with low steepness. The challenge is to properly characterise the porous medium. This research has shown that innovative porous structures like spaced gabions have proven their place as environmentally-friendly damping breakwaters. They may be commonly used in the future.

<p dir="ltr">The recent surge in water levels within the Great Lakes has laid bare the vulnerability of the surrounding coastal areas. Over the past few years, communities along the Great Lakes coast have struggled with widespread coastal transformations, witnessing phenomena such as shoreline retreat, alterations in habitat, significant recession of bluffs and dunes, infrastructure and property damage, coastal flooding, and the failure of coastal protection structures. Unlike the ocean coasts, the Great Lakes coastal regions experience a unique confluence of large interannual water level fluctuations, coastal storms, and ice cover dynamics, which complicates the ongoing coastal management endeavors. To address this multifaceted challenge, the interplay between all these factors and their impact on coastal changes should be understood and applied to improve the resilience of Great Lakes coastal areas.</p><p><br></p><p dir="ltr">In this dissertation, several steps were taken to improve knowledge of coastal processes in the Great Lakes, spanning from the initial use of remote sensing for quantifying coastal changes to the subsequent stages of modeling and predicting shoreline changes as well as leveraging machine learning techniques to simulate and forecast influential factors like waves and ice cover. First, a fully automated shoreline detection algorithm was developed to quantify the shoreline changes in Lake Michigan, detecting the most vulnerable areas, and determining the main factors responsible for the spatial variability in the shoreline changes. Additionally, a reduced complexity model was designed to simulate the shoreline changes in Lake Michigan by considering both waves and water level fluctuations, which significantly improved the shoreline changes modeling and forecasting for Lake Michigan. Furthermore, new deep learning-based frameworks based on the Convolution Long Short-Term Memory (ConvLSTM) and Convolution Neural Network (CNN) were introduced to model and extend the current records of wave heights and ice cover datasets, adding 70% and 50% data to the existing waves and ice time series respectively. Finally, the extended waves and ice time series were used to study the long-term trends and the correlation between the interannual water level and waves changes, revealing a statically significant decreasing trend in the ice cover over Lake Michigan of 0.6 days/year, and an increasing trend in the waves interannual variability at Chicago area.</p>

A three dimensional computational model of a full scale axial flow tidal turbine has been used to investigate the effects of a range of realistic environmental conditions on turbine performance. The model, which is based on the Reynolds averaged Navier-Stokes equations, has been developed using the commercial flow solver ANSYS Fluent. A 1:30 scale tidal turbine is simulated in an open channel for comparison to existing experimental data. The rotor blades are directly resolved using a body-fitted, unstructured computational grid. Rotor motion is enabled through a sliding mesh interface between the rotor and the channel boundaries. Reasonably good agreement in thrust and power is observed. The computed performance curves are offset from the measured performance curves by a small increment in rotor speed. Subsequently, a full scale axial flow turbine is modelled in a variety of conditions representative of tidal channel flows. A parametric study is carried out to investigate the effects of flow shear, confinement and alignment on turbine performance, structural loading, and wake recovery. Mean power and thrust are found to be higher in sheared flow, relative to uniform flow of equivalent volumetric flow rate. Large fluctuations in blade thrust and torque occur in sheared flow as the blade passes through the high velocity freestream flow in the upper portion of the profile and the lower velocity flow near the channel bed. A stronger shear layer is formed around the upper portion of the wake in sheared flow, leading to enhanced wake mixing. Mean power and thrust are reduced when the turbine is simulated at a lower position in a sheared velocity profile. However, fluctuations in blade loading are increased due to the higher velocity gradient. The opposite effects are observed when the turbine operates at greater heights in sheared flow. Flow misalignment has a negative impact on mean rotor thrust and power, as well as on unsteady blade loading. Although the range of unsteady loading is not increased significantly, additional perturbations are introduced due to interactions between the blade and the nacelle. A deforming surface is introduced using the volume-of-fluid method. Linear wave theory is combined with the existing free surface model to develop an unsteady inflow boundary condition prescribing combined sheared flow and free surface waves. The relative effects of the sheared profile and wave-induced velocities on turbine loading are identified through frequency analysis. Rotor and blade load fluctuations are found to increase with wave height and wave length. In a separate study, the performance of bi-directional ducted tidal turbines is investigated through a parametric study of a range of duct profiles. A two dimensional axi-symmetric computational model is developed to compare the ducted geometries with an unducted device under consistent blockage conditions. The best-performing ducted device achieves a peak power coefficient of approximately 45% of that of the unducted device. Comparisons of streamtube area, velocity and pressure for the flow through the ducted device shows that the duct limits the pressure drop across the rotor and the mass flow through the rotor, resulting in lower device power.

Thesis (MScEng)--Stellenbosch University, 2013. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The various consequences of climate change pose a significant threat to developments near the coast. These threats include saltwater intrusion, coastal erosion and flooding. In the coastal context, the climate change effect often raising the most concern is that of sea-level rise. Much work has therefore been done on the linear setback caused by a rise in sea-level. In order to get the full picture of possible changes caused by sea-level rise, the secondary effects of a rising sea-level also need to be considered. Sea-level rise could cause changes to the nearshore wave climate and could have impacts such as coastal erosion and changes to the coastline shape. The primary objective of this study was therefore to investigate the effects of sea-level rise on the nearshore wave climate and, consequently, the coastline stability. Other consequences of climate change considered in this study include increasing average wave heights and a rotation of offshore wave directions. The many headland-bay beaches on the South African coastline are generally in a state of dynamic equilibrium and find their planforms based on the local wave climate. Changes to the wave climate may therefore disrupt the equilibrium shapes of these bays. This study was therefore also aimed at investigating the effects of the changes to the wave climate on the stability of headland-bay beaches. The three consequences of climate change expected to affect the nearshore wave climate were identified as (1) sea-level rise; (2) an increased wave height; and (3) changing offshore wave angles. Although changes to storm frequency and intensity are also possible, the impacts of these changes were not studied. In order to assess the impacts of the three considered changes on a typical headland-bay beach, two numerical models were set up for Mossel Bay – a headland-bay beach on the southern coast of South Africa. The modelling approach included a wave transformation model to calculate nearshore wave climates from offshore data and a coastline model to assess the stability of the bay under the changed nearshore wave climates. The model results indicated that the rising sea-level alone would cause changes in the nearshore wave direction. These changes were shown to alter the longshore sediment transport regime such that rotations are expected in the south-western corner and eastern end of Mossel Bay. These rotations do not include the cross-shore effects of inundation and erosion, as suggested by models such as the Bruun Model. The results for an increased offshore wave height were inconclusive. The southerly rotation in offshore wave angles was shown to affect the nearshore wave angles. These changes affected the longshore transport regime such that the outward sediment transports were reduced. A minor accretion resulted in the centre of the bay for a 1° southerly rotation in offshore wave angles. For a 2° rotation, the extent of accretion increased and shifted towards the eastern end of the bay, primarily due to the dominance of south-westerly waves in the local wave climate. A valuable observation was made regarding the current stability of Mossel Bay. Inter-tidal reefs are present along three sections of the bay. These reefs protect the coastline such that the current bay shape contains sharp bends between the reefs. Under a rising sea-level, however, the effect of the reefs will become less pronounced. If a water level should be reached where these reefs become less significant, the planform of the bay is expected to smooth out through a significant redistribution of sediment. This smoothing effect was shown to cause erosion of the coastline in the order of 80m near the town of Klein Brak River. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die verskeie gevolge van klimaatsverandering bied ‘n merkwaardige bedreiging vir ontwikkelings naby die kus. Hierdie bedreigings sluit die versouting van varswaterbronne, kuserosie en oorstromings in. Vir kusgebiede is seevlakstyging gereeld die effek van klimaatsverandering wat die meeste kommer wek. Dus is heelwat navorsing rakende die direkte erosie as gevolg van seevlakstyging reeds gedoen. Om die volle beeld van die gevolge van ‘n stygende seevlak te verkry, is dit egter nodig om ook die sekondêre effekte hiervan in ag te neem. Seevlakstyging kan veranderinge in die golfklimaat naby die kus veroorsaak, en kan impakte soos kuserosie en veranderende baaivorms tot gevolg hê. Die primêre doel van hierdie studie is dus om die effek van seevlakstyging op die golfklimaat by die kus en gevolglik die stabiliteit van die kuslyn, te ondersoek. Benewens die styging van die seevlak word die effekte van groter gemiddelde golfhoogtes en die rotasie van diepsee golfrigtings ook in hierdie studie ondersoek. Die vele landpunt-baaie (headlandbay beaches) op die Suid-Afrikaanse kus is meestal in ‘n dinamiese ekwilibriumtoestand, waarvan die vorm deur die lokale golfklimaat bepaal word. Veranderinge aan dié golfklimaat mag dus die ekwilibrium vorms van sulke baaie versteur. Hierdie studie het dus ook die stabilititeit van landpuntbaaie onder ‘n veranderende golfklimaat ondersoek. Die drie gevolge van klimaatsverandering wat verwag word om die golfklimaat naby die kus te beïnvloed is geïdentifiseer as (1) seevlakstyging; (2) vergrote golfhoogtes; en (3) veranderende diepsee golfhoeke. Veranderinge aan die frekwensie en intensiteit van storms is ook moontlike gevolge van klimaatsverandering, maar die impakte hiervan is nie in die studie ondersoek nie. Twee numeriese modelle is toegepas om die impak van die drie bogenoemde gevolge op Mosselbaai – ‘n tipiese landpunt-baai aan die suidkus van Suid-Afrika – te ondersoek. ‘n Golfmodel is ingespan om die golfklimaat naby die kus te bepaal waarna ‘n kuslynmodel gebruik is om die stabiliteit van die baai onder die veranderde golfklimaat te ondersoek. Die resultate van die studie dui daarop dat die golfhoeke naby die kus beïnvloed word deur seevlakstyging. Daar is aangetoon dat dié veranderinge die langsstroomvervoer sodanig sal verander dat kuslynrotasies in die suid-westelike hoek asook die oostelike rand van Mosselbaai verwag word. Hierdie rotasies sluit nie die lineêre landwaartse verplasing van die kuslyn as gevolg van erosie en oorstroming in nie. Die effek van vergrote golfhoogtes kon nie met akkuraatheid ondersoek word nie. Daar is wel gevind dat die suidwaartse rotasie van diepsee golfhoeke rotasies in die golfklimaat naby die kus veroorsaak. Hierdie rotasies verander die langsstroom sedimentvervoer sodanig dat die uitwaartse sedimentvervoer verminder word en ‘n klein opbou van sediment in die middel van die baai vir ‘n 1° diepsee rotasie verwag word. Vir ‘n 2° suidwaartse rotasie is daar ‘n groter opbou van sediment wat verder ooswaarts veplaas is. Die ooswaartse veplasing is primêr ‘n gevolg van die oorheersing van suid-westelike golftoestande in die golfklimaat. ‘n Waardevolle gevolgtrekking rakende die huidige stabiliteit van Mosselbaai is ook gemaak. Langs drie gedeeltes van die Mosselbaaise kus word riwwe in die gebied tussen hoog- en laagwater aangetref. Hierdie riwwe beskerm die kus sodanig dat skerp kinkels in die vorm van die baai tussen die riwwe gesien kan word. Wanneer die seevlak styg, word die beskermende effek van die riwwe egter minder doeltreffend. Indien ‘n watervlak bereik word waar dié effek genoegsaam verminder is, word daar verwag dat die baai deur ‘n merkwaardige verplasing van sediment die kinkels sal uitstryk. Deur hierdie proses word erosie in die orde van 80m naby die dorp van Klein Brakrivier verwag.

Thesis (MScEng)--Stellenbosch University, 2013. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The Strand is located within False Bay and frequently encounters large quantities of wave overtopping over the coastal defences. This results in the damage of property and infrastructure and causes streets to be flooded. Physical modelling tests were done by a consultancy firm to determine a solution by making use of a recurve structure at the back of the beach. This study is an expansion of the previous physical modelling that was done and focuses on several factors that were not tested by the consultancy firm that could have an influence on the overtopping rate and provide additional information on the recurve design. These tests were: (i) the effectiveness of the proposed recurve wall design in reducing overtopping was compared to a vertical wall; (ii) the influence that modifications to the beach profile such as the beach slope, beach width and beach level have on the overtopping rate; and (iii) the sensitivity of overtopping to changes in wave period was tested. The information gathered from these tests was used to propose a possible solution for the Strand. Numerical modelling was done with Delft3D-Wave to determine the wave height at the back of the beach using a nested grid. The waves at the Strand are depth limited and therefore very sensitive to changes in water level. By altering the beach level the model showed how the significant wave height at the back of the beach changes. First estimates of overtopping were determined using the relevant empirical calculations from the EuroTop Manual 2007 for a vertical seawall. No estimate could be made for the recurve wall since it did not fall in the valid range of the equations. From the physical modelling it was found that the overtopping reduced significantly from a vertical to a recurve seawall by a factor of about 50% depending on the wall height. All the prediction methods tested proved to be accurate in estimating the overtopping when the ratio of freeboard to significant wave height was ≤1.83. For non-breaking wave conditions the beach profiles that were gently sloped (1:50) and wide produced more overtopping than the beach profiles that were steep (1:10) and narrow. Increasing the beach level only decreased the overtopping if the water depth was shallow enough to cause the waves to break before they reached the back of the beach. Overtopping was found to increase with longer wave periods until the wave period became too long and the waves broke offshore which resulted in the overtopping decreasing. Possible solutions to overtopping were proposed based on two beach levels and the implementation of a recurve seawall. Revised crest levels for the wall were made along the length of the beach for both the 1:20 and 1:100 year water levels. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die Strand is in Valsbaai geleë en ervaar dikwels baie oorspoeling deur golwe bo-oor kusverdedigingswerke. Dit lei tot skade aan eiendom sowel as aan infrastruktuur en veroorsaak dat strate oorstroom. Fisiese modelleringstoetse is deur ’n konsultasiefirma gedoen om ’n oplossing te probeer vind deur van ’n teruggebuigde struktuur aan die agterkant van die strand gebruik te maak. Hierdie studie is ’n uitbreiding van die vorige fisiese modellering wat gedoen is en fokus op verskeie faktore wat nie deur die konsultasiefirma getoets is nie. Dit kan moontlik ’n invloed op die oorspoelingstempo hê en verskaf bykomende inligting oor die ontwerp van die terugbuiging. Hierdie toetse is: (i) die doeltreffendheid van die voorgestelde ontwerp van die teruggebuigde strandmuur in die vermindering van oorspoeling word vergelyk met ’n vertikale muur; (ii) die invloed wat veranderinge aan die strandprofiel soos die helling van die strand, die wydte van die strand asook die strandvlak op die oorspoelingstempo het; en (iii) die sensitiwiteit van oorspoeling op veranderinge in golfperiode is getoets. Die inligting wat uit hierdie toetse verkry is, word gebruik om ’n moontlike oplossing vir die Strand voor te stel. Numeriese modellering is met Delft3D-Wave gedoen om die golfhoogte aan die agterkant van die strand vas te stel deur van ’n genestelde ruitenet gebruik te maak. Die golwe by die Strand word deur diepte beperk en is dus baie sensitief vir veranderinge in die watervlak. Deur die strandvlakke te verander het die model getoon hoe die betekenisvolle golfhoogte aan die agterkant van die strand verander. Die eerste beramings van oorspoeling is bepaal deur van die relevante empiriese berekenings uit die EuroTop-handleiding 2007 vir ’n vertikale strandmuur gebruik te maak. Daar kon geen beraming vir die teruggebuigde muur gemaak word nie aangesien dit nie binne die geldige bereik van die vergelykings val nie. Uit die fisiese modellering is daar vasgestel dat oorspoeling noemenswaardig met ’n gemiddeld van ongeveer 50% verminder is, afhangend van die muurhoogte. Al die voorspellingmetodes wat getoets is was akkuraat in die beraming van die oorspoeling wanneer die verhouding van vryboord tot betekenisvolle golfhoogte ≤1.83 was. Vir nie-brekende golftoestande het strandprofiele met ’n lae helling (1:50) en wat wyd was meer oorspoeling tot gevolg gehad as strandprofiele wat steil (1:10) en nou was. ’n Verhoging in die strand se vlakke het die oorspoeling slegs verminder indien die diepte van die water vlak genoeg was om die golwe te laat breek voordat hulle die agterkant van die strand bereik het. Oorspoeling is gevind om te vermeeder met verlengde golflengte tot dat die golflengte só lank geword het dat die golwe in dieper water begin breek wat aanlieding tot verminderde oorspoeling gegee het. Daar word moontlike oplossings vir oorspoeling voorgestel gebaseer op twee strandvlakke en die implementering van ’n teruggebuigde strandmuur. Voorgestelde golfkruinvlakke vir die muur is al langs die lengte van die strand gemaak vir beide die 1:20- en 1:100-jaar watervlakke.

Thesis (MEng)–Stellenbosch University, 2014. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The Port of Durban is forecasted to reach its capacity in terms of container handling soon, which necessitates the investigation of an alternative port in the vicinity. The old Durban Airport site has been identified as a potential location to develop a new deep water container harbour. This is driven by a demand for deep water berth capacity as a result of shipping liners preferring the benefits of scale in their operations, leading to the use of larger ships with deeper drafts. To protect the new port from wave energy penetrating inside the basin as well as from sedimentation from the adjacent beaches, the design and construction of breakwaters are required. The proposed main breakwater for this dig-out port is expected to extend 1 200m into the sea, up to depths of 30m at the seaward roundhead. The deeper parts of the breakwater face wave onslaught in a different manner than a conventional breakwater in shallower waters. At these larger depths, the breakwater has to dissipate the energy of non-breaking waves. In this thesis, the wave climate nearshore, adjacent to the proposed breakwater is studied and extreme wave events are simulated with a SWAN numerical model. The results for a range of wave conditions, corresponding to selected events up to a return period of one in 100 years, are presented. A study of deep water breakwaters was undertaken to investigate other examples of similar structures. This indicated a clear distinction between vertical wall type breakwaters and the more traditional rubble-mound type breakwaters. For this thesis, a rubble-mound breakwater was chosen as the breakwater type for testing under conditions of the Durban Dig-Out Port (DDOP). Focussing on a deep water trunk section of the proposed main breakwater, a concept cross-section was designed using deterministic design methods. The formulae incorporated in this method did however not take into account the packing density of the armour layer and only assumed the recommended values. The hypothesis is thus put forward that the breakwater will still be hydraulically stable for packing densities below the recommended values. This would decrease material consumption and save on cost over the entire breakwater. A physical model was designed to experiment with different armour layer configurations of single- and double layer Cubipod arrangements. The unit was chosen for its massive shape and structural integrity even during impact. A physical model study was performed at the facilities of the CSIR in Stellenbosch. It entailed setting up a fixed-bed two-dimensional physical model in a glass wave flume. Measuring wave heights, wave reflection, overtopping, wave transmission and armour damage, the hydraulic stability and operational performance were analysed for several tests. Based on the results of the first few test series, alterations were made to the breakwater geometry and armouring. The results confirmed the hypothesis that lower packing densities were still hydraulically stable under 1 in 100 year return period wave conditions without inhibiting operational performance. A final cross-section is presented as concept design for the deep section of the proposed DDOP main breakwater. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Volgens vooruitsigte gaan Durban hawe binnekort sy kapasiteit bereik wat die hantering van skeepshouers betref. Hierdie verwikkeling noodsaak die ondersoek na ‘n alternatiewe hawe in die nabye omgewing. Die voormalige Durban lughawe is intussen geïdentifiseer as ‘n potensiële perseel waar ‘n diep water houervrag hawe ontwikkel kan word. Dit word gedryf deur die aanvraag na diep water kaai kapasiteit as gevolg van skip operateurs wat skaalvoordele verkies, sodat groter skepe met diep rompe meer populêr word. Die ontwerp en konstruksie van breekwaters word dus benodig, om te verhoed dat beide golwe, sowel as sediment van aangrensende strande, die hawe binnedring. Die voorgestelde hoof breekwater vir hierdie hawe sal na verwagting tot 1200m in die see in strek, waar dit tot 30m diep is naby die seewaartse hoof van dié breekwater. Die dieper gedeeltes van só ‘n breekwater sal blootgestel word aan ‘n ander soort golf aanslag as ‘n soortgelyke konvensionele breekwater in vlakker water. In hierdie waterdiepte is die breekwater verantwoordelik vir die energie verbreking van ongebreekte golwe. In hierdie tesis word die golfklimaat langs die kus, naby aan die voorgestelde breekwater bestudeer. Die uiterste golf gebeurtenisse word gesimuleer met ‘n SWAN numeriese model. Die resultate van ‘n reeks golf kondisies, ooreenstemmend met bepaalde gebeurtenissemet herhaal periodes van tot 100 jaar, word aangebied. ‘n Studie van diep water breekwaters is onderneem om voorbeelde van soortgelyke strukture te ondersoek. Die studie toon ‘n definitiewe onderskeid tussen vertikale muur breekwaters en die meer tradisionele “rubble-mound” breekwater tipes. Vir hierdie tesis is die “rubble-mound” breekwater tipe gekies vir toetsing, onderhewig aan die kondisies van die “Durban Dig-Out Port” (DDOP). ‘n Konsep deursnit is ontwerp vir ‘n diep water romp gedeelte van die voorgestelde hoof breekwater, deur van deterministiese metodes gebruik te maak. Die formules soos vervat in hierdie proses maak egter nie voorsiening vir die pakdigtheid van die bewapeningslaag nie, maar aanvaar slegs die voorgestelde waardes. Die hipotese word dus aangevoer dat die breekwater steeds hidrolies stabiel sal wees vir pakdigthede wat laer as die voorgestelde waardes is. Dit sal die verbruik van materiale verlaag en lei tot koste besparings vir die breekwater. ‘n Fisiese model is ontwerp om te eksperimenteer met verskillende opstellings van die bewapeningslaag. Dit sluit enkel- en dubbel laag bewapening met Cubipod eenhede in. Hierdie eenheid is gekies vir sy massiewe vorm en strukturele integriteit, selfs tydens impak. ‘n Fisiese model studie is uitgevoer by die fasiliteite van die WNNR in Stellenbosch. Dit het die opstel van ‘n vaste-bodem, twee-dimensionele fisiese model in ‘n glas golftenk (“wave flume”) behels. Hidroliese stabiliteit en operasionele werksverrigting is geanaliseer deur golf hoogtes, -weerkaatsing, -oorslag, -deurlating, en skade aan die bewapening te meet vir verskeie toetse. Gebasseer op die resultate van die eerste paar toetsreekse, is veranderinge gemaak aan die breekwater se geometrie en bewapening. Die resultate het die hipotese bevestig dat laer pakdigthede steeds hidrolies stabiel is tydens golf kondisies met ‘n 1 in 100 jaar herhaal periode, sonder om die werksverrigting van die breekwater te belemmer. ‘n Finale deursnit word voorgestel as ‘n konsepontwerp vir die diep water deursnit van die DDOP se hoof breekwater.

As the demands for energy increased with the global increase in population, there is a need to create and invest in more clean and renewable energy sources. Energy derived from the movement of the tides is an ancient concept that is currently being harnessed in a handful of large tidal range locations. However, the need to move from fossil fuel driven energy sources to those that are clean and non-polluting is a priority for a sustainable future. Globally, hydropower potential is estimated to be more than 16,400-Terawatt hours annually. Given that the electricity consumption worldwide was at 15,068-Terawatt hours in 2016, if properly utilized, hydropower could supply a substantial percentage of current demand. Most of the current hydropower supply is drawn from well-established dams and tidal barrage systems. However, tidal power plants that harness the change in water height and flow along the coast (i.e. using tidal energy) have the potential to push these figures even higher. Although there is no exact number for lengths of global coastlines, there are estimates that put that number between 220,000 and 880,000 miles of coasts. These opportunities in tidal energy technologies that harness energy from the sea may one day be the key to solving our energy crises. This research explored in detail a closed, convergent system for optimal extraction of head-driven tidal energy with minimal adverse environmental effects. The long-term goal of this project is to create a system that is viable in low tidal range locations traditionally not considered for locations of tidal energy systems, therefore increasing the overall global tidal energy portfolio. By implementing a closed system of ‘bladders’ and convergent nozzles to optimize the flow rate of the contained fluid, the proposed system can 1) derive tidal energy in low tidal range geographies 5 2) avoid typical hazards like system biofouling, marine life propeller impacts, and 3) allow for ease of installation, operation, and maintenance.