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Pay for performance programs are being used more and more extensively nowadays. The proponents of incentives claim that money is an important motivator for better performance, while the opponents insist that incentives can never bring lasting performance improvement, which is driven by intrinsic motivation. It has been born out that monetary reward has detrimental effects on intrinsic motivation. However, the results come mostly from experiments on school children, whether the result can be replicated in work settings is still a question needs to be examined. This study examined whether performance based pay has detrimental effect on physicians¡¦ intrinsic motivation and what effects other non-monetary rewards may have on intrinsic motivation. It is found that the intrinsic motivation of Attending Physician is significantly higher than Resident Physician, which implies that the motivational property of the work itself is a very important factor of intrinsic motivation. Physicians from privatized public hospitals have higher intrinsic motivation than those from public hospitals, of which the causes may need to be further explored. In terms of different positions, productivity-based pay, organizational performance based pay and recognition are found to have positive influence on Attending Physicians¡¦ intrinsic motivation, while career development opportunities and research-teaching based pay are found to have positive influence on Resident Physicians¡¦ intrinsic motivation. As to the effects of performance-based pay, it is found that physicians having performance-based pay do feel more controlled by pay; however, their intrinsic motivation is not negatively affected. It seems to imply that organizational workers are able to separate intrinsic reward and extrinsic reward and thus their intrinsic motivation is not affected by extrinsic rewards. This result is similar to what Fisher found in 1978. The moderating effect of individual difference is not significant in this study due to the homogeneity of physicians.

Using Cognitive Evaluation Theory, this research evaluated the impact non-monetary extrinsic incentives in the form of department t-shirts had on the intrinsic motivation of Virginia career and volunteer firefighters. Intrinsic motivation was measured using the Work Extrinsic and Intrinsic Motivation Scale (WEIMS). The survey was administered to a randomly selected sample of firefighters. Data was analyzed using multiple regression analysis. Results suggested that the department t-shirt did not have a statistically significant impact on intrinsic motivation of both career and volunteer firefighters. Additionally, this study suggested that volunteer firefighters did not perceive salary as an inequitable reward. This was exhibited by the higher levels of intrinsic motivation by volunteer firefighters than career firefighters. This was also found in the comparisons of volunteer firefighters from combination and volunteer fire departments. Finally, delays in the distribution of non-monetary extrinsic incentives did not have an impact on intrinsic motivation of both career and volunteer firefighters.

This experiment investigated the influence of reward property and reward power on creative performance. It was hypothesized that the magnitude of reward power would moderate the relationship between reward property and creativity. Fifty undergraduate students (45 females, 5 males, X age = 20.72 years, SD age = 4 years) participated. The experimental design was reward power ($0.00, $0.50, or $2.00 per trial) x reward property (informational vs. controlling undertones in the script) x trials (5). Results demonstrated a positive correlation between intrinsic motivation and creative performance (r = .411, p = .03, n = 50). Hypotheses concerning the moderating influence of reward power and reward property on creative performance were not supported. However, this experiment replicated past research demonstrating that intrinsic motivation facilitates creativity.

Syftet med studien var att undersöka den upplevda motivationen och arbetstillfredsställelsen hos förskolepersonal. Undersökningen genomfördes med en kvalitativ metod med hjälp av semistrukturerade intervjuer med totalt nio respondenter. Teorierna som användes var Warr´s vitaminmodell, Self - Determination Theory (SDT) samt subteorin Cognitive evaluation theory (CET). Resultatet visade att samtliga respondenter upplevde hög motivation kopplat till sitt arbete samt upplevde hög arbetstillfredsställelse. Majoriteten av respondenterna lyfte upp goda relationer med barn, föräldrar och kollegor som betydelsefulla för motivationen. Analysen visade att belöningar påverkade motivationen olika mycket, och den verbala belöningen var den belöning som majoriteten av respondenternas uttryckte vara deras främsta källa till motivation. Studien tydde vidare på att autonomi var viktigt för respondenternas upplevda arbetstillfredsställelse. Respondenterna uppgav att arbetstillfredsställelsen ökade när det fanns en högre grad av kontroll kopplat till arbetet. Studien visar även att det fanns en bra sammanhållning i organisationen, vilket kan vara en bidragande faktor till den höga motivation och arbetstillfredsställelse som rådde i organisationen när undersökningen genomfördes. Slutligen diskuterades det om den inre motivation som respondenterna uppvisade är så pass hög att respondenterna skulle kunna arbeta utan lön.

Volunteerism is positively associated with various benefits to university students. Perhaps for this reason, some educational institutions are paying students to participate in volunteerism. Conversely, the cognitive evaluation theory suggests that monetary rewards may undermine intrinsic motivation and decrease the likelihood of future participation in volunteerism. However, there has been little empirical research done regarding this issue. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to examine the effects of monetary rewards on university students' intrinsic motivation to participate in a volunteerism activity. While the findings indicated a subtle trend supporting the cognitive evaluation theory, an analysis of the data demonstrated no statistical significance, thus suggesting that further research is needed in order to understand the application of the cognitive evaluation theory to volunteerism.

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The Cognitive Evaluation Theory explains the outcomes of studies employing Deci's paradigm, but only when used post hoc. A basic assumption is that extrinsic rewards always increase intrinsic motivation for nonhuman subjects. Deci's paradigm was modified for use with 22 rats to test this assumption. Running in an exercise wheel was the intrinsically motivated activity studied. ANCOVA revealed that external rewards increased intrinsic interest on the first day following the cessation of reinforcement (F = 8.32), but on two subsequent days and again a week later, no significant differences between the reward and control groups were evident (F = .29; F = .33; F = 3.70). The assumption was not supported. It was demonstrated that repeated posttest measures are necessary to avoid basing conclusions upon one point along the extinction continuum.

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Introdução: A infecção crônica pelo vírus da hepatite C (HCV) é considerada uma doença sistêmica com numerosas manifestações extra-hepáticas. Comprometimento do sistema nervoso periférico e alterações neuropsiquiátricas são relatadas em algumas séries, com certa heterogeneidade entre elas. Embora alterações cognitivas tenham sido descritas, alguns estudos não comprovaram esta associação. Poucos estudos sobre o tema foram realizados no Brasil. Objetivo: estudar alterações do sistema nervoso periférico e alterações neuropsiquiátricas nos pacientes com infecção pelo HCV e verificar se têm relação com genótipo viral, grau de fibrose hepática e presença de autoanticorpos. Método: 76 pacientes adultos (40 mulheres) com 18 anos ou mais de idade portadores de infecção crônica por HCV, virgens de tratamento, sem sinais de encefalopatia hepática franca, não portadores do vírus da Hepatite B (HBV), vírus da imunodeficiência adquirida (HIV) ou sífilis foram avaliados no período de agosto de 2009 a fevereiro de 2016 e comparados com grupo controle composto por 76 indivíduos não portadores de HCV, HBV, HIV ou sífilis (43 mulheres) com distribuição semelhante quanto ao gênero, faixas etárias e graus de escolaridade. Pacientes e controles foram submetidos a avaliação clínica, avaliação cognitiva breve [Miniexame do Estado Mental (MEEM), teste do desenho do relógio (TDR), teste de fluência verbal (FV) semântica, teste dos dígitos em ordem direta e indireta (WAIS-III)] e avaliação do humor, ansiedade e desesperança (Inventário de Beck). Os pacientes com hepatite C foram submetidos a extensa bateria de exames laboratoriais, determinação do genótipo, dosagem de insulina, gamaglobulinas, crioglobulinas (CGs), fator reumatoide (FR), frações do complemento e pesquisa de autoanticorpos. Resultados de biópsias hepáticas realizadas em menos de 18 meses da avaliação inicial no estudo foram considerados para análise. Além de exames para inclusão no estudo, os controles foram submetidos a avaliação laboratorial. O programa SPSS 20 (Statistical Package for the Social Sciences) foi utilizado para análise estatística. Resultados: Neuropatias periféricas (NP) foram encontradas em 29 pacientes (38,1%) e 14 controles (18,3%) [p=0,007]. Dos pacientes portadores de HCV com NP, 12 (41,4%) apresentavam mononeuropatias (MN) ou mononeuropatias múltiplas (MNM), 7 (24,1%) polineuropatias (PNP) sensitivas ou sensitivomotoras, 5 (17,2%) PNP com MN ou MNM sobrepostas, 4 (13,8%) radiculopatias e 1 (3,4%) neuropatia motora pura (1/29). Dos 14 portadores de NP no grupo controle, 8 (57,1%) apresentavam neuropatia uni ou bilateral do nervo mediano, 4 (28,6%) radiculopatias e 3 (21,4%) PNP. Parestesias/dores neuropáticas nos membros sem sinais objetivos de NP foram relatadas por 26,3% dos pacientes e por 7,9% dos controles (p < 0,0001). Não houve diferença significativa na prevalência de diabetes melito (DM) entre pacientes e controles (6,6% vs 9,2%). Dezessete pacientes (22,4%) tinham intolerância à glicose. CGs foram detectadas no soro de 9,2% (6/65) dos pacientes e foram positivas no soro de 13,8% dos pacientes portadores de HCV com NP. Teor aumentado de gamaglobulinas séricas foi encontrado em 46,2% (30/64) dos pacientes, positividade do FR em 26,7% (16/60), níveis baixos de C4 em 19,3% (16/60), anticorpos (AC) antimúsculo liso em 26,2% (18/65), AC antitireoperoxidade em 22,9% (8/35) e AC anticardiolipinas IgM em 20,7% (12/58). Houve diferença estatística significativa entre pacientes com hepatite C com e sem NP em relação à presença de AC anti-SSA/RO e antitirosina fosfatase (p=0,028 e p=0,038, respectivamente). Nos pacientes com hepatite C, NP se correlacionou com idade (p < 0,05), grau de fibrose à biópsia hepática (p < 0,05) e alteração do metabolismo da glicose (p < 0,05) e no grupo controle com o diagnóstico de DM (p < 0,01). Não foram verificadas diferenças estatísticas significativas entre pacientes e controles em relação aos escores totais no MEEM, FV semântica, TDR e testes dos dígitos em ordem direta e indireta. A memória de evocação mostrou diferença significativa entre os grupos (p=0,009). Mais pacientes que controles tinham escores <= 23 no MEEM (p=0,025). Resultados semelhantes foram obtidos na comparação entre sujeitos com escolaridade > 4 anos. Não foi verificada diferença estatística entre pacientes e controles em relação ao grau de depressão, ansiedade e desesperança. Os genótipos do HCV não se correlacionaram com nenhuma variável estudada. Conclusão: 38,1% dos pacientes e 18,3% dos controles apresentavam NP. MN ou MNM representaram 41,3%, as PNP 24,1% e as PNP com MN ou MNM sobrepostas 17,2%. Nos pacientes com hepatite C as NP mostraram correlação com AC anti-SSA/RO e antitirosina fosfatase. Foi verificada diferença significativa entre os grupos na memória de evocação e no número de sujeitos que obtiveram escores <= 23 no MEEM, mas não quanto aos sintomas de depressão, ansiedade e desesperança / Background: Chronic hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection is increasingly considered a systemic disease with numerous extrahepatic manifestations. Peripheral neuropathies (PN) and neuropsychiatric disorders are reported in some series of patients, with a certain heterogeneity between them. Although cognitive dysfunction has been described, some studies failed to prove this association. Few studies on the subject were conducted in Brazil. Objectives: identify disorders in peripheral nerve function and neuropsychiatric dysfunction in treatment-naïve patients with chronic HCV infection without overt hepatic encephalopathy and verify whether there is a relationship with viral genotype, liver fibrosis grade and presence of autoantibodies. Methods: a cohort of 76 adult patients with chronic HCV infection aged 18 years and older (40 women), treatment naïve, not coinfected with hepatitis B virus (HBV), acquired immunodeficiency virus (HIV) or syphilis was evaluated from August 2009 to February 2016 and compared with a control group of 76 individuals (43 women) with a negative screening for HCV, HBV, HIV or syphilis, with similar gender, age and educational level distribution. Patients and controls were clinically evaluated and submitted to a brief cognitive screening (Minimental State Examination (MMSE), clock drawing test (CDT), semantic verbal fluency test (VF) and digit span test (WAIS-III) in direct and inverse order and assessment of mood, anxiety and hopelessness through the Beck Inventory. Hepatitis C patients underwent extensive battery of laboratory tests, genotype determination, insulin dosage, and gammaglobulins, cryoglobulins (CGs), rheumatoid factor (RF), complement fractions, and autoantibody screening. Anatomopathological studies of the liver performed within less than 18 months of the initial study interview were considered for analysis. The Statistical Package for the Social Sciences was used to carry out appropriate tests. Results: PN was found in 29 patients with HCV infection (38.1%) and 14 controls (18.3%) [p = 0.007]. Of the HCV patients with PN, 12 (41.4%) presented MN or MNM, 7 (24.1%) sensory or sensoriomotor PNP, 5 (17.2%) PNP with MN or MNM overlap, 4 (13.8%) radiculopathies and 1 (3.4%) pure motor neuropathy. Of the 14 control subjects with PN, 8 (57,1%) had uni or bilateral medial nerve neuropathy, 4 (28.6%) radiculopathy and 3 (21.4%) PNP. Paresthesias / neuropathic limb pain without objective signs of PN were reported by 26.3% of patients and 7.9% of controls (p < 0.0001). There was no significant difference in the prevalence of diabetes mellitus (DM) between patients and controls (6,6% vs 9,2%). Glucose intolerance was found in 17 (22.4%) HCV patients. Serum CGs were detected in 9.2% (6/65) of the HCV patients and were positive in 13.8% of HCV patients with PN. High serum gamma globulins levels were found in 46.2% (30/64) of the patients, FR in 26.7% (16/60), low C4 levels in 19.3% (16/60), smooth muscle antibodies in 26.2% (18/65), anti-thyroperoxidase antibodies in 22.9% (8/35) and IgM anticardiolipin antibodies in 20.7% (12/58). Anti-SSA / RO and anti-tyrosine phosphatase antibodies were significantly different between HCV patients with and without PN (p = 0.028 and p = 0.038, respectively). PN in HCV patients was correlated with age (p < 0.05), grade of liver fibrosis (p < 0.05) and altered glucose metabolism (p < 0.05) and in the control group with DM (p < 0.01). No statistically significant differences between patients and controls were found in the total scores of MMSE, semantic VF, TDR and digit tests in direct and indirect order. Recall memory showed a significant difference between the groups (p = 0.009). More patients than controls had scores <= 23 in the MMSE (p = 0.025). Similar results were obtained in the comparison between subjects with > 4 years of schooling. No statistical difference was found between patients and controls regarding the degree of depression, anxiety and hopelessness. HCV genotypes did not correlate with any of the studied variables. Conclusion: 38.1% of the patients and 18.3% of the controls had NP. In HCV patients with PN, MN or MMN represented 41.3%, PNP 24.1% and PNP with MN or MMN superimposed 17.2%. Anti-SSA/RO and antityrosine phosphatase antibodies showed a significant difference between HCV patients with and without PN. There was a significant difference between the groups in recall memory and in the number of subjects who obtained scores <= 23 in the MMSE, but not in the symptoms of depression, anxiety and hopelessness