Previous research shows that socio-cultural factors play an important role in determining the outcomes of natural resource conservation. Conservationists have discovered that when such factors are not properly incorporated from the earliest planning stages, projects are often less successful than hoped and at times outright failures. Thus, several core values that vary among cultures were studied to examine their relationships to natural resources and conservation. This study investigated the relationships between natural resources and conservation and the 3 value orientations individualism, collectivism, and locus of control and socio-demographics in the North Rupununi, Guyana. Quantitative and qualitative data were collected in 5 villages (Annai Central, Apoteri, Rewa, Aranaputa, and Wowetta) via participant observation and mostly structured interviews of 167 local residents. Field research took place from January to November 2008, and interviews occurred from July to October of the same year. Analysis indicates the following results for this sample. Neither the individualism measurement used in this study not the locus of control scale showed many statistically significant associations, but some interesting patterns and trends appear in the case of locus of control. In contrast, the collectivism scale showed associations to several of the natural resource items. The main conclusions from the study are that to promote more successful conservation, professionals need to focus on several factors that promote more effective communication and negotiation. Developing equity among participants; empowering people through their own knowledge, influence, and options; establishing respect by and for all parties; co-creating a common mental model among the parties; and fostering the competence and confidence of all parties to actively participate in the negotiations are key to success. This can be especially tricky in cases in which the various parties come from different socio-cultural backgrounds, such as in the case of Western scientists working with remote indigenous peoples. Coming to a shared mental model and feelings of true equity among the parties is even harder then because the disparate backgrounds make common understanding difficult at best. However, it is that much more necessary when common backgrounds are absent. In such cases, a well-trained, culturally sensitive, and neutral facilitator can be the most useful tool to help co-create the right circumstances for authoring solutions which foster natural resource conservation that can succeed.

China and France have both adopted the International Standards on Auditing (ISA). Thelargest firms in auditing and accounting in the world, known as Big Four, are established inFrance as well as in China. Auditors from those firms apply procedures that have beenharmonized worldwide within Deloitte, PricewaterhouseCoopers, KPMG, and Ernst &Young. When it comes to audit, French auditor and Chinese auditor talk the same language,use the same software, boundaries seem to be knocked over. On the other hand, what BigFour firms are not able to standardize is the culture of their auditors. Does auditor’s culturemay shatter all efforts that have been put to deliver the same services throughout the world?Does auditor’s culture may call the work of the International Auditing and AssuranceStandards Board (IAASB) into question? Do either French or Chinese auditors enable ahigher audit risk to the audited client? Many other questions could be raised about the effectof cultures on the audit process. The purpose of this research is to explore, measure and analyse the cultural impact on theaudit process. In order to highlight the difference(s) of the audit outcome due to culture,countries have to exemplify a certain numbers of cultural differences. China and France havebeen chosen because their belonging to the Eastern and Western clusters, and as we know,Eastern and Western countries have substantial cultural differences (Hofstede, 2001).According to Hofstede’s cultural dimensions, Individualism (versus Collectivism) andUncertainty Avoidance are the two dimensions that get the higher cultural differences whenhe compares Chinese and French Culture. We want to discover how Chinese and Frenchauditors rely on analytical procedures and assess audit evidence and internal controlenvironment. We want to study if their audit results reflect the cultural differences betweenChina and France based on the two cultural dimensions. In order to manage our empirical research, we use a sample of 28 Chinese auditors and 14French auditors. We use primary data collection through our design questionnaire. Theauditors’ answers were analysed using a quantitative approach to reveal the eventual existenceof a connection between the auditor’s cultural background and how the audit process iscarried out. Our findings about cultural differences within Big Four companies are not so categorical. We did not find significant differences regarding Chinese and French auditors’ culture. However,Chinese auditors appear to have a higher willingness to refuse a misstatement in the client’s financial statements, due to collectivism cultural dimension, than French auditors. Auditors from both countries assess in similar way audit evidence, but they do not consider of the same importance some components of the internal control environment. French auditors considerof greater importance components that can directly influenced the accuracy of the accountingreporting process, because an individualism society as France tends to “encourage”accounting and cut-off errors within organizations.

This research explores feelings of obligation to volunteer, which lie at the interface of volunteering as simultaneously individual and collective and challenge traditional understandings of volunteering as leisure. The study examined volunteering within the context of communitarianism, particularly how collective outcomes of volunteering are related to feelings of obligation to volunteer. Phase one of this research focused on scale creation of a measure assessing feelings of obligation in the context of volunteerism. Using exploratory factor analyses of data from a student sample, this first phase yielded two measures: an 18-item Obligation to Volunteer as Commitment measure (OVC), encompassing dimensions of reward, affective attachment, flexibility, and side bets; and a 14-item Obligation to Volunteer as Duty measure (OVD), encompassing the dimensions of expectation, burden, and constraint. In phase two, survey research was conducted with 300 volunteers at ten community organizations. These new measures were used to examine relationships between obligation to volunteer and the value orientations of individualism and collectivism, the experience of volunteering as serious leisure, and the community characteristics of sense of community and social cohesion. Both individualism and collectivism were associated with the commitment but not the duty dimension of feelings of obligation, and both value orientations, but particularly individualism, was linked to serious leisure. Serious leisure very closely aligned with the commitment aspect of obligation as well as sense of community and social cohesion, thus emerging as a possible pathway for nurturing sense of community in a culture of individualism. Correlation and hierarchical regression analyses link the commitment aspect of obligation to sense of community and social cohesion. Feelings of duty to volunteer, in contrast, were inversely related to sense of community. Thus, the nature of feelings of obligation related to volunteering as commitment or duty have significant implications for the collective outcomes of volunteering, particularly sense of community. Also notable are the strong theoretical and empirical relationships between the OVC scale and serious leisure, which suggest that the newly-developed commitment scale could be considered a measure of the agreeable obligation that accompanies serious leisure pursuits.

The purpose of this study was to investigate if preferences for high- and low context communication differed significantly between individuals from individualistic and collectivistic cultures, living in a multicultural environment. A quantitative survey was used as method and the survey was answered by 150 students at Jönköping University and Uppsala University. Two self-assessment scales, obtained from previous studies were used to measure the degree of the two cultural dimensions and communication styles. Two multiple regression analyzes were performed to investigate the connection between collectivist cultures preference for high context communication and individualistic cultures preference for low context communication, that has been found in previous studies. Two ANOVAs were also performed to investigate differences in communication style depending on sex and length of stay in Sweden. The results partly confirmed previous research, reporting a significant link between high degree of collectivism and high context communication, as well as a higher preference for high context communication among women. / Syftet med föreliggande studie var att ta reda på om preferensen för hög- och lågkontextuell kommunikation skiljde sig signifikant åt mellan individer från individualistiska respektive kollektivistiska kulturer i en mångkulturell miljö. En kvantitativ enkätundersökning användes som metod och enkäten besvarades av 150 studenter vid Högskolan i Jönköping och Uppsala universitet. Två självskattningsskalor hämtade från tidigare studier användes för att mäta graden av de två kulturdimensionerna och kommunikationsstilarna. Två multipla regressionsanalyser utfördes för att undersöka det samband mellan kollektivistiska kulturers preferens för högkontextuell kommunikation och indvidualistiska kulturers preferens för lågkontextuell kommunikation som påvisats i tidigare studier. Det gjordes även två variansanalyser för att undersöka skillnader i kommunikationsstil beroende på kön, och vistelsetid i Sverige. Resultatet bekräftade delvis tidigare forskning, då det visade ett signifikant samband mellan hög grad av kollektivism och högkontextuell kommunikation, samt en högre preferens för högkontextuell kommunikation hos kvinnor.

UNIVERSITY Mälardalen University (Mälardalens högskola) School of Sustainable Development of Society and Technology COURSE Master Thesis in Business Studies with Specialization in International Marketing COURSE CODE EFO705 TITLE Cultural influences on the social network marketing effectiveness: A case study in Thailand. RESEARCH QUESTIONS How does collectivism influence the effectiveness of social network marketing? PURPOSE OF THE STUDY The purpose of this thesis is to investigate and analyze whether the cultural dimension of collectivism among Thais has an influential impact on the effectiveness of social network marketing implementation on clothing retailing companies toward online customers or not. METHODOLOGY This thesis has employed both primary and secondary data to operationalize the conceptual framework. A questionnaire given to 160 respondents and the interview of 2 Thai expert marketers has been carried out to operationalize this research question. CONCLUSION The collectivistic behaviors among Thais show a slightly positive relationship which supports the effectiveness of social network marketing implementation. The other influential factors, apart from collectivism, are detergency in educational levels, knowledge of using social network, smart phone trends, and internet facility readiness.

Chinese-American adolescents were compared with the major group in the United States (European-American adolescents) in negotiating self-concepts related with autonomy and connectedness. Senses of autonomy and connectedness were evaluated by examining adolescents' cultural value orientations (individualism and collectivism), parent-adolescent relationships (decision-making styles and power perception), and relations between the two constructs. Participants included 56 first- or second-generation Chinese-American adolescents (18.5% of first-generation and 81.5% of secondgeneration) and 45 European-American adolescents, accompanied with their mothers (47 Chinese-American mothers and 42 European-American mothers). In terms of cultural value orientations, Chinese- and European-Americans' selfconcepts were consistently oriented towards collectivism more than individualism in adolescents and mothers. With regard to parent-adolescent relationships, Chinese- American adolescents have identified with the dominant culture to show similar desires of being autonomous as European-American adolescents. However, Chinese-American mothers adopted more authoritarian, conservative, and inflexible parenting styles than European-American mothers. With regard to the relations between variables of cultural value orientations and variables of parent-adolescent relationships, the pattern of findings was consistent with the notion that Chinese-American adolescents who internalize highly collectivistic cultural values displayed more collectivistic communication styles in parent-adolescent relationships than European-American adolescents.

Thesis (D. Miss.)--Western Seminary, Portland, OR, 2001. / Abstract. Includes bibliographical references (leaves 327-334).

Fundamental to the debate of culture and its impact is the identification of the dimensions that comprise it. The impact of culture as an explanatory variable can be found in various social, scientific, and economic arenas, such as social perception, economic development, and the organization of industries and companies. By identifying and measuring these dimensions, researchers can then organize cultures empirically and develop complex descriptions of various cultures. The study aimed to test the structure of the dimensions proposed by Ho and Chiu (1994) by means of scale development. Test-item writers involved psychology graduate students of various nationalities with the purpose of addressing reliability issues of previous measures by virtue of increased content breadth. The study also aimed to investigate the notion that cultural tendencies vary by dimension across geographical regions. Phase-I factor analysis results indicated that a 5-factor solution (responsibility, affiliation, social welfare, religion, and achievement) should be retained. Phase-II involved administering the scale to an international and American student sample that formed the basis for group comparisons. The results for the group comparisons were illuminating, providing evidence for the conceptualization of individualism and collectivism as worldviews and that the groups varied in their worldview depending on the pertinent dimension being measured. Implications for organizational research are discussed within the framework of linking individualism and collectivism to workplace variables. This study hopes to spur further empirical research in the area to catch up with the progressing theoretical development through expanded cultural dimensions, theory refinement, determining the process(es) by which cultural factors are linked to work behaviors, and uncover the various areas of applicability and research.

The present study attempts to extend leader-member exchange theory to the team-level by including team social cohesion and two team-level exchange relationship constructs (i.e., team-level leader-member exchange [LMX] and team-member exchange [TMX]) simultaneously, and by examining antecedents and outcomes associated with these variables. The research model includes transformational leadership and team-members' individualism-collectivism as antecedents of the team relational environment and both team performance and team viability as effectiveness measures. Survey data were collected for a field sample of 89 Airborne Special Operations (ASO) teams in the Korean Army. Each team's effectiveness was rated by three different sources: team members (N=823, 7~11 people per team; M=9.4), regional unit (RU) peers (31~42 peers for each team; M=37.2), and RU commanders (N=17). The hypothesized model and several alternative models were tested three times, using team effectiveness measures from each of the three sources in a separate model. Overall, results from path analyses conducted using EQS were consistent with the hypotheses. Specifically, both team-level LMX and TMX were positively affected by transformational leadership and team members' collectivism. TMX showed a stronger positive association with team social cohesion than did team-level LMX. Team performance was positively affected by TMX, team social cohesion, and transformational leadership in the model that employed team members' ratings as team effectiveness measures. However, when the ratings from RU peers were used as team outcome measures, the path from team social cohesion to team performance remained significant, but the other two paths became non-significant. None of the three variables significantly predicted team performance as rated by RU commanders. When viewed in terms of team viability, team social cohesion showed a significant association with team viability across all three models. Although TMX predicted team viability when team members' ratings were used in the model, it did not predict team viability when the ratings were from either RU peers or RU commanders. Finally, transformational leadership showed a significant positive and negative relationship with the number of collectivists and individualists within a team, respectively, across all three models. The limitations of the present study and recommendations for future research are presented.

The South African work environment is characterised by a highly differentiated labour force regarding culture, race, ethnicity, language, gender and school education. Since 1994 the focus has increasingly been on getting the labour corps to function at an equal level. As a result of the historic backlog with regard to training, social development and communication that prevails among the black labour corps, a breeding-ground for racial and/or ethnic conflict and stress can arise. Worldwide cultural differences within the same community are by no means an uncommon phenomenon. Die aim of this thesis was to establish what the nature and impact of values, attitudes, identity experiences and stress is among student groupings at the African School for Film and Dramatic Art (AFDA), as well as to determine the psychometric features of the distinctive measuring instruments. This study was undertaken after a decade of political transition in South Africa within a culturally diverse student population. A once-off cross-section population was used as sample (n = 247). The survey group consisted of two sub groups: black students (n = 80); white students (n = 160). Their terms of study at the AFDA ranged from one to four years. Values were measured by means of the Value Scale of Scholtz (1996). Attitudes were measured on the basis of Du Toit's Contact and Intercultural Perception Scale (1991). Group identity experience was evaluated by means of the Racial/Group Identity Scale of Helms (1993), and the Stress Scale of Van Gram (1981) was also applied. The statistical analyses were done by using the SAS-programme (SAS Institute, 2000). Cronbach alfa coefficients and inter-item correlations were used to determine the internal consistency of the measuring instruments. Exploratory factor analysis was used to establish the construct validity of the scales. Descriptive statistics were applied to analyse the data. Canonical correlation was utilised to analyse the relation between sets of variables. Stepwise multiple regression analysis was applied. Effect sizes rather than statistical inference were utilised to determine the significance of the findings. t-tests were also used. The results were presented in the form of four research articles. These results indicated that a diversity of values, attitudes, identity experiences and stress experiences are present among the two groupings of students. A discrepancy occurred more specifically regarding values as experienced by individuals (especially within group context) and regarding organisational values (Article 1). Within the white grouping, a value pattern came to the fore in which values such as honesty, dependability and respect were very important to the group. They also rated the values reasonableness and thankfulness high. A strong value pattern for the black grouping comes to the fore with values such as respect, honesty, dependability, thankfulness, politeness and hospitality. In both groupings uncertainty prevailed concerning the importance of value within the organisation such as mutual respect, honesty, religion and hospitality. These values will therefore predict how the individual in the group experiences his or her activities, relationship with others, nature and time. The bipolar attitude scale provides an account of how each grouping experiences its own as well as its external group (Article 2). In general, positive attitudes are present from the white grouping towards the black grouping (for instance kind-heartedness, goodness, pleasantness). However, cognitive growth is necessary in the white grouping concerning their perception of the dependability, wisdom, diligence and sense of responsibility of the black grouping. In the one field there seems to be an experience dimension in the white grouping with regard to attitudes, namely that the black grouping always turns up late. Within the black grouping, more negative-attitude tendencies occur towards the white grouping. Fields they find problematic are the dependability, fairness, honesty, helpfulness, sense of responsibility and peacemaking-attempts of the white grouping. The moderated attitudes of the white grouping toward themselves regarding being less ambitious and uncertain about their worth for the organisation, corresponds with how the black group experiences them. An assumption can be made that this attitude probably originates from the policy of affirmative action. Only three group identity phases manifested in the black grouping, while five group identity phases manifested in the white grouping (Article 3). The differences in the phases in the various groupings correspond with the impact of the South African political history on the identity moulding of the distinctive groupings. In the factor analysis, different factors from those in the theory of Helms (1993) were identified. In general, the white grouping is positive concerning their own identity - not shy of being white (90,63%) and feel at ease with other groupings (85%). These findings therefore indicate an established group identity that is developing positively. In the black grouping a positive to very positive tendency prevails that implies that they are experiencing positive identity-development growth. The uncertain vacuum of the black group identity has faded, and instead, internalisation and black self acceptance has crystallised. In both the groupings the impact that values, attitudes and identity experiences have on stress, was divided into the frequency of stress and the intensity of stress that the groups experience in different fields. Both groupings reported high stress frequencies on items such as frustration and anxiety, while the intensity of stress on dimensions such as anxiety substructure and boredom comes to the fore stronger in both groupings. The psychometric features of the measuring instruments were satisfactory. The construct validity of Helms' scale (1993) for the black grouping should be further investigated, seeing that the chronological development of identity moulding perhaps is embodied differently in South Africa with its unique history than elsewhere. Recommendations were made for future research. / Thesis (Ph.D. (Industrial Psychology))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2004.