Diploma thesis introduces the problems of electromigration, fluxes and flux residues. It includes a proposal for methods of measuring surface insulation resistance, information about selected types of fluxes and conformal coatings. It focuses on the influence of temperature, humidity. There are applied conductometric method and method of measuring SIR by IPC-25-B. The thesis describes the practical measurement of SIR and ionic contamination of PCB covered with flux and influence of RH, temperature and applied voltage is evaluated and discussed.

Capillary zone electrophoresis is an analytical method frequently used in many laboratories for solving various analytical problems. This diploma thesis describes one of many applications of capillary zone electrophoresis using a unique laboratory apparatus composed of a short capillary and dual conductivity/UV detector placed in one detection point of the separation capillary. In the first part of this thesis, the laboratory apparatus was tested by the separation of small inorganic and organic ions. Sodium, potassium, tyramine and histidine ions were used to test the two parts of the dual detector. Experimentally obtained mobilities of these ions were compared with those calculated from the tabulated values. In the second part, the apparatus was used for determination of analytes in samples with more complex matrixces, pharmaceuticals Acylcoffin and B-komplex produced by Zentiva, a.s. One analyte was chosen from each pharmaceutical preparation for determination of its concentration in the preparation, caffeine from Acylcoffine and thiamine from B-komplex. The concentrations were calulated using three different calibration methods and the experimentally obtained values were compared with those specified by the pharmaceuticals producer. Key words: capillary electrophoresis; short capillary;...

A presente tese descreve o aprimoramento do acoplamento de eletroforese capilar/espectrometria de massas com ionização por electrospray (CE-ESI-MS) (1) pelo desenvolvimento de estratégias de controle de temperatura e posicionamento e (2) pela inclusão de dois detectores condutométricos sem contato (C4Ds) ao capilar de separação eletroforética de modo a se obter informações complementares àquelas fornecidas pelo MS. Os primeiros aprimoramentos consistiram na introdução de uma plataforma móvel para o CE e um módulo de refrigeração da porção externa do capilar. Com estes aprimoramentos, foi possível realizar estudo de cinética de hidrólise de monoetilcarbonato (MEC) por CE-ESI-MS, obtendo-se, pela primeira vez, o valor da energia de ativação de 99 ± 8 kJ mol-1. Posteriormente, foi desenvolvida uma série de protótipos de cartuchos impressos 3D em ABS, permitindo a introdução de até dois C4Ds. Além da inclusão dos detectores, a versão aprimorada do cartucho permitiu um bom comportamento térmico da coluna, permitindo que, tal como em sistemas CE-DAD, correntes eletroforéticas alcancem valores da ordem de 100 µA sem efeitos térmicos indesejados (o que não ocorre ao se utilizar o cartucho original para CE-MS). As possibilidades do arranjo CE-(C4D)2-ESI-MS foram demonstradas pelo desenvolvimento de métodos analíticos de separação para: (1) açúcares a pH 11,2; (2) aminas biogênicas a pH 2,0 e (3) ácidos carboxílicos a pH 7,5. A compatibilização dos eletroferogramas dos C4Ds ao longo do capilar e do ESI-MS no final do capilar foi conseguida pela correção da escala de tempo. Assim, as informações obtidas com os vários detectores podiam ser facilmente complementadas. Devido à baixa seletividade intrínseca do C4D, este se mostra amplamente complementar ao ESI-MS, que é o sistema mais seletivo para CE disponível na atualidade. Embora este último também seja altamente sensível, o C4D se mostrou comparável ou até mais apropriado em alguns casos. Assim, esta combinação única apresenta um grande potencial como ferramenta analítica. / The capillary electrophoresis/mass spectrometry with electrospray source (CE-ESI-MS) was improved by (1) the development of new temperature control and positioning systems and (2) the inclusion of two capacitively coupled contactless conductivity detectors (C4Ds) to the electrophoretic separation capillary allowing to obtain complimentary information to the MS. The initial improvements were the introduction of a sliding platform for the CE equipment and a thermostatic module for the portion of the capillary outside the CE environment. These improvements allowed obtaining, for the first time, the activation energy of hydrolysis reaction of monoethyl carbonate: 99 ± 8 kJ mol-1. However, the most important improvement was the development of 3D-printed cartridge allowing the inclusion of up to two C4Ds along the capillary. This cartridge also allowed a significant improvement of the thermal control over the capillary. No significant difference of the original CE-DAD was observed for electrophoretic currents up to 100 µA. The original CE-MS has similar behavior only until 60 µA. New possibilities of the CE-(C4D)2-ESI-MS setup were demonstrated by the development of analytical methods for separation of: (1) sugars at pH 11.2, (2) biogenic amines at pH 2.0, and (3) carboxylic acids at pH 7.5. The electropherograms of the three detectors were made compatible by correcting the time scales. Therefore, the information obtained from the three detectors may be easily complemented. Thanks to the intrinsic low-selectivity of the C4D, that is complementary to the MS, which is the most selective detector for CE today. Although MS is also highly sensitive, C4D had similar or even better performance in some cases. Therefore, this unique combination is powerful analytical tool

Os biossensores são dispositivos empregados para a detecção de um analito específico, podendo assim ser no controle de qualidade nos alimentos para determinar a presença de micro-organismos, toxinas ou metabólitos. O presente estudo objetiva desenvolver um biossensor condutométrico, baseado na imobilização de peroxidasse em membranas de quitosana e quitosana com nanopartículas de ouro (AuNP) para a detecção de peroxido de hidrogênio. O trabalho foi dividido em três etapas. Na primeira etapa foi estudada a obtenção de AuNP empregando agentes redutores biológicos, sendo avaliados três monossacarídeos (glicose, frutose e galactose), três dissacarídeos (sacarose, maltose e lactose), dois biopolímeros (amido e quitosana), assim como os extratos obtidos a partir das folhas de hortelã (Mentha piperita) e cascas de furtas de abacaxi (Ananas comosus), banana (Musa sp. ), maracujá (Passiflora edulis), tangerina (Citrus reticulata). A quitosana mostrou-se como o melhor agente redutor na síntese das AuNP, as quais foram empregadas na segunda etapa para a produção de membranas. Três tipos de membranas foram processadas, membranas de quitosana sem AuNP e membranas de quitosana com AuNP com concentrações de 8 e 11mM., as quais foram caraterizadas morfológica e eletricamente. Finalmente foi avaliada a imobilização da peroxidasse usando quatro tratamentos diferentes, sendo a dispersão da peroxidasse nas soluções filmogênicas precursoras das membranas a mais eficiente. A resposta elétrica destas membranas é dependente da concentração de AuNP e da presença de enzimas, e também foi alterada quando as mesmas foram expostas a soluções de tampão fosfato com diferentes concentrações de peroxido de hidrogênio. Isto constitui o principio de operação dos biossensores condutométricos desenvolvidos neste trabalho. / Biosensors are devices used for detecting a specific analyte, and thus can be used in quality control of food for determining the presence of micro-organisms, toxins or metabolites. The present study aims to develop a conductometric biosensor based on the immobilization of peroxidase in membranes of chitosan and chitosan with gold nanoparticles (AuNP) for the detection of hydrogen peroxide. The work was divided into three stages. In the first stage, methods for obtaining AuNP employing biological reducing agents were studied, evaluating three monosaccharides (glucose, fructose and galactose), three disaccharides (sucrose, maltose and lactose), two biopolymers (starch and chitosan), as well as the extracts obtained from the leaves of mint (Mentha piperita) and husks dost thou pineapple (Ananas comosus), banana (Musa sp), passion fruit (Passiflora edulis), mandarin (Citrus reticulata). Chitosan exhibited the best behavior as reducing agent for the synthesis of AuNP, which were employed in the second step for the production of membranes. Three types of membranes were processed, chitosan membranes without AuNP and chitosan membranes with AuNP with concentrations of 8 and 11mM, which were morphologically and electrically characterized. Finally the peroxidase immobilization was evaluated using four different procedures, being the dispersion of the peroxidase in filmogenic solutions precursor of membranes the more efficient. The electrical response of these membranes, depends on the AuNP concentration and the presence of enzymes, and was also altered when they were exposed to hydrogen peroxide containing phosphate buffer solutions. This constitutes the principle of operation of the conductometric biosensor developed in this work.

Planar two-dimensional (2-D) nanostructured indium oxide (InOx) and one-dimensional (1-D) tin oxide (SnO2) semiconductor metal-oxide layers have been utilised for gas sensing applications. Novel layered Surface Acoustic Wave (SAW) based sensors were developed consisting of InOx/SiOxNy/36°YXLiTaO3, InOx/SiNx/SiO2/36°YXLiTaO3 and InOx/SiNx/36°YXLiTaO3 The 1 µm intermediate layers of silicon oxynitride (SiOxNy), silicon nitride (SiNx) and SiO2/SiNx matrix were deposited on lithium tantalate (36°YXLiTaO3) substrates by r.f. magnetron sputtering, electron-beam evaporation and plasma enhanced chemical vapour deposition (PECVD) techniques, respectively. As a gas sensitive layer, a 100 nm thin layer of InOx was deposited on the intermediate layers by r.f. magnetron sputtering. The targeted gases were ozone (O3) and hydrogen (H2). An intermediate layer has multiple functions: protective role for the interdigital transducers' electrodes as well as an isolating effect from InOx sensing layer, thereby improving the sensor performance. The developed SAW sensors' exhibited high response magnitudes with repeatable, reversible and stable responses towards O3 and H2. They are capable of sensing concentrations as low as 20 parts-per-billion for O3 and 600 parts-per-million for H2. Additionally a conductometric type novel sensing structure of SnO2/36°YX LiTaO3 was also developed by depositing a thin layer of SnO2 nanorods by PECVD. The gas sensing performance exhibited repeatable, reversible, stable responses towards NO2 and CO. The surface morphology, crystalline structure and preferred orientation of the deposited layers were investigated by Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) and X-ray Diffraction (XRD). A polycrystalline, oxygen deficient non-stoichiometric InOx with grain sizes of 20-40 nm was revealed. The 1-D nanostructures were characterised by Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM) showing nanorods with needle-like shape , diameters of 10-20 nm a t the top and 30-40 nm at the base as well as a preferential growth orientation of [ ] on the LiTaO3 substrate. The developed sensors are promising for O3, H2 and CO sensing.

A method is described for preset-count irradiations between 1 and 100 ions singling-out individual ions from an ion beam with more than a billion ions arriving per second. The ion tracks are etched in a conductometric system with real-time evaluation of the acquired data. The etch process can be interrupted when reaching a preset channel diameter. Cylindrical channels are obtained by adding surfactants to the etch solution forming a self-assembled barrier between etching medium and polymer. Asymmetric etching of single ion tracks leads to pH sensitive conical pores with diode-like properties. Using etched channels as template, homogeneous and multilayer magnetic single-wires are electrodeposited. The magnetoresistivity of the wires is studied. Single-track applications comprise critical apertures (cylindric, conic, necked), asymmetric pores (pH sensitive, biospecific), Giant Magneto Resistance sensors, and spintronic devices. On the basis of studies with individual ion tracks we tackled tilted multiporous systems such as ion beam lithography with a masked ion beam leading to micro-structures with inclined walls and anisotropic superhydrophobic ion track textures, analogous to biological shingle structures on butterfly wings. We demonstrated qualitatively, that the asymmetry of the texture translates into motion under ultrasonic agitation. This could lead to the development of rotary drives.

Os biossensores são dispositivos empregados para a detecção de um analito específico, podendo assim ser no controle de qualidade nos alimentos para determinar a presença de micro-organismos, toxinas ou metabólitos. O presente estudo objetiva desenvolver um biossensor condutométrico, baseado na imobilização de peroxidasse em membranas de quitosana e quitosana com nanopartículas de ouro (AuNP) para a detecção de peroxido de hidrogênio. O trabalho foi dividido em três etapas. Na primeira etapa foi estudada a obtenção de AuNP empregando agentes redutores biológicos, sendo avaliados três monossacarídeos (glicose, frutose e galactose), três dissacarídeos (sacarose, maltose e lactose), dois biopolímeros (amido e quitosana), assim como os extratos obtidos a partir das folhas de hortelã (Mentha piperita) e cascas de furtas de abacaxi (Ananas comosus), banana (Musa sp. ), maracujá (Passiflora edulis), tangerina (Citrus reticulata). A quitosana mostrou-se como o melhor agente redutor na síntese das AuNP, as quais foram empregadas na segunda etapa para a produção de membranas. Três tipos de membranas foram processadas, membranas de quitosana sem AuNP e membranas de quitosana com AuNP com concentrações de 8 e 11mM., as quais foram caraterizadas morfológica e eletricamente. Finalmente foi avaliada a imobilização da peroxidasse usando quatro tratamentos diferentes, sendo a dispersão da peroxidasse nas soluções filmogênicas precursoras das membranas a mais eficiente. A resposta elétrica destas membranas é dependente da concentração de AuNP e da presença de enzimas, e também foi alterada quando as mesmas foram expostas a soluções de tampão fosfato com diferentes concentrações de peroxido de hidrogênio. Isto constitui o principio de operação dos biossensores condutométricos desenvolvidos neste trabalho. / Biosensors are devices used for detecting a specific analyte, and thus can be used in quality control of food for determining the presence of micro-organisms, toxins or metabolites. The present study aims to develop a conductometric biosensor based on the immobilization of peroxidase in membranes of chitosan and chitosan with gold nanoparticles (AuNP) for the detection of hydrogen peroxide. The work was divided into three stages. In the first stage, methods for obtaining AuNP employing biological reducing agents were studied, evaluating three monosaccharides (glucose, fructose and galactose), three disaccharides (sucrose, maltose and lactose), two biopolymers (starch and chitosan), as well as the extracts obtained from the leaves of mint (Mentha piperita) and husks dost thou pineapple (Ananas comosus), banana (Musa sp), passion fruit (Passiflora edulis), mandarin (Citrus reticulata). Chitosan exhibited the best behavior as reducing agent for the synthesis of AuNP, which were employed in the second step for the production of membranes. Three types of membranes were processed, chitosan membranes without AuNP and chitosan membranes with AuNP with concentrations of 8 and 11mM, which were morphologically and electrically characterized. Finally the peroxidase immobilization was evaluated using four different procedures, being the dispersion of the peroxidase in filmogenic solutions precursor of membranes the more efficient. The electrical response of these membranes, depends on the AuNP concentration and the presence of enzymes, and was also altered when they were exposed to hydrogen peroxide containing phosphate buffer solutions. This constitutes the principle of operation of the conductometric biosensor developed in this work.

A presente tese descreve o aprimoramento do acoplamento de eletroforese capilar/espectrometria de massas com ionização por electrospray (CE-ESI-MS) (1) pelo desenvolvimento de estratégias de controle de temperatura e posicionamento e (2) pela inclusão de dois detectores condutométricos sem contato (C4Ds) ao capilar de separação eletroforética de modo a se obter informações complementares àquelas fornecidas pelo MS. Os primeiros aprimoramentos consistiram na introdução de uma plataforma móvel para o CE e um módulo de refrigeração da porção externa do capilar. Com estes aprimoramentos, foi possível realizar estudo de cinética de hidrólise de monoetilcarbonato (MEC) por CE-ESI-MS, obtendo-se, pela primeira vez, o valor da energia de ativação de 99 ± 8 kJ mol-1. Posteriormente, foi desenvolvida uma série de protótipos de cartuchos impressos 3D em ABS, permitindo a introdução de até dois C4Ds. Além da inclusão dos detectores, a versão aprimorada do cartucho permitiu um bom comportamento térmico da coluna, permitindo que, tal como em sistemas CE-DAD, correntes eletroforéticas alcancem valores da ordem de 100 µA sem efeitos térmicos indesejados (o que não ocorre ao se utilizar o cartucho original para CE-MS). As possibilidades do arranjo CE-(C4D)2-ESI-MS foram demonstradas pelo desenvolvimento de métodos analíticos de separação para: (1) açúcares a pH 11,2; (2) aminas biogênicas a pH 2,0 e (3) ácidos carboxílicos a pH 7,5. A compatibilização dos eletroferogramas dos C4Ds ao longo do capilar e do ESI-MS no final do capilar foi conseguida pela correção da escala de tempo. Assim, as informações obtidas com os vários detectores podiam ser facilmente complementadas. Devido à baixa seletividade intrínseca do C4D, este se mostra amplamente complementar ao ESI-MS, que é o sistema mais seletivo para CE disponível na atualidade. Embora este último também seja altamente sensível, o C4D se mostrou comparável ou até mais apropriado em alguns casos. Assim, esta combinação única apresenta um grande potencial como ferramenta analítica. / The capillary electrophoresis/mass spectrometry with electrospray source (CE-ESI-MS) was improved by (1) the development of new temperature control and positioning systems and (2) the inclusion of two capacitively coupled contactless conductivity detectors (C4Ds) to the electrophoretic separation capillary allowing to obtain complimentary information to the MS. The initial improvements were the introduction of a sliding platform for the CE equipment and a thermostatic module for the portion of the capillary outside the CE environment. These improvements allowed obtaining, for the first time, the activation energy of hydrolysis reaction of monoethyl carbonate: 99 ± 8 kJ mol-1. However, the most important improvement was the development of 3D-printed cartridge allowing the inclusion of up to two C4Ds along the capillary. This cartridge also allowed a significant improvement of the thermal control over the capillary. No significant difference of the original CE-DAD was observed for electrophoretic currents up to 100 µA. The original CE-MS has similar behavior only until 60 µA. New possibilities of the CE-(C4D)2-ESI-MS setup were demonstrated by the development of analytical methods for separation of: (1) sugars at pH 11.2, (2) biogenic amines at pH 2.0, and (3) carboxylic acids at pH 7.5. The electropherograms of the three detectors were made compatible by correcting the time scales. Therefore, the information obtained from the three detectors may be easily complemented. Thanks to the intrinsic low-selectivity of the C4D, that is complementary to the MS, which is the most selective detector for CE today. Although MS is also highly sensitive, C4D had similar or even better performance in some cases. Therefore, this unique combination is powerful analytical tool

Le travail de la thèse présente une série de (bio)capteurs conductimétriques, à base de la clinoptilolite, pour la détermination de l’ammonium, de l’urée et de la L-arginine. La clinoptilolite, le matériau nanométrique, possédant des propriétés de la sorption intrinsèque et une capacité d’échange cationique vis-à-vis des espèces ammonium, a été d’abord utilisée pour la réalisation d’un microcapteur conductimétrique sélectif à NH4+. Ci-après, une application de ce nanomatériau dans les biocapteurs est favorable pour le fonctionnement dans les solutions tampons multicomposants. Parmi plusieurs variantes de biocapteurs à l’urée à base de la zéolite, la plus intéressante est le biocapteur, dans lequel la couche de la clinoptilolite, déposée sur le transducteur, a été recouverte par le dépôt de la couche de l’uréase et de la zéolite. Pour l’élaboration d’un biocapteur conductimétrique hautement sensible pour la détermination de la L-arginine, l’arginase et l’uréase ont été co-réticulées sur le transducteur. Une détermination quantitative de la L-arginine dans une solution buvable « Arginine Veyron » a montré un fort accord avec les données fournies par le producteur. Une procédure détaillée de l’optimisation du biocapteur conductimétrique pour la détection de la L-arginine dans le sérum bovin a été proposée. La clinoptilolite a été également appliquée comme un modificateur dans la co-immobilisation de l’arginase et l’uréase pour améliorer les caractéristiques analytiques de biocapteur conductimétriques pour la détermination de la L-arginine / Currentwork presents a serie of conductometric (bio)sensors based on clinoptilolite, for ammonium, urea and L-arginine determination. Clinoptilolite, a nanoscale material possessing exceptional sorption and cation-exchange properties toward ammonium species, was initially used for the development of NH4+-selective conductometric microsensor. The clinoptilolite-based microsensor was selective toward ammonium in the presence of interferences that are commonly found along with ammonium in natural waters. Hereafter, an application of this nanomaterial in biosensors is favorable for operation in multicomponent buffer solutions. Among the several variants of the urea biosensors based on zeolite, considerably better characteristics were obtained for the biosensor comprising a clinoptilolite adlayer and an upper layer of immobilized urease and zeolite. In the work, for first time was developed a highly sensitive conductometric biosensor for L-arginine determination based on arginase and urease co-immobilized in a single membrane. The results of a quantitative determination of L-arginine in a drinkable solution “Arginine Veyron”, obtained by the biosensor, were in high correlation with the data provided by the producer. The L-arginine conductometric biosensor was optimized for the serum analysis. Clinoptilolite was also applied as a modifier in co-immobilization of arginase and urease for the improvement of analytical characteristics of the conductometric biosensor for L-arginine determination

L'encapsulation de protéines pose de nombreuses difficultés liées à leurs propriétés physicochimiques, leur sensibilité aux conditions environnementales et opératoires. La structure 3D spécifique de chaque protéine étant directement liée à son activité biologique, un contrôle de l'intégrité protéique est indispensable pour assurer l'efficacité et la sécurité des systèmes formulés. Dans cet optique, l'encapsulation par émulsion multiple a été appliquée à une protéine modèle : la myoglobine (Mb). Le but de cette thèse a été l'étude du procédé d'encapsulation à travers 3 objectifs. Le premier fut d'étudier l'influence de paramètres de formulation sur les propriétés des particules obtenues et sur la conformation de la Mb. Les mesures en spectrométrie UV/Vis. et le calcul des principaux rapports d'absorbance ont constitué une méthode de contrôle fiable et rapide. Le second fut de valider la pertinence et de montrer les limites de cette méthode en la comparant à une seconde méthode utilisant des mesures conductimétriques. Enfin, l'étape de solidification des particules par élimination du solvant ainsi que le changement de solvant ont été étudiés.. Des microsphères creuses de 15μm avec un rendement d'encapsulation de 36% ont pu être obtenues tout en maintenant la conformation native de la Mb. L'emploi de polymère de masse moléculaire élevée et un taux d'élimination de solvant trop rapide sont 2 paramètres altérants significativement la protéine. Ces travaux ouvrent la voie au développement de transporteurs d'O2 utilisables par exemple dans le cas de pathologies musculaires / Protein encapsulation results in several problems related to their physicochemical properties, their sensitivity to environmental conditions and operating procedures. The specific 3D structure being directly linked to their biological activity, monitoring of protein integrity is crucial to ensure the efficacy and security of formulations. In this context, the multiple emulsion method was applied to a model protein: myoglobin (Mb). The aim of this thesis was to study the encapsulation process through 3 objectives. The first was to study the influence of formulation parameters on the particle properties and the conformation of Mb. Measurements by UV/Vis. spectrometry and calculation of key absorbance ratios established a reliable and rapid method for protein monitoring. The second was to validate the pertinence and show the limits of this method by comparing it to a second one using conductimetry measurements. Finally, the particle solidification by solvent removal and the solvent exchange were studied. The process maintains the Mb native conformation in Hollow microspheres of 15μm in diameter and an encapsulation efficiency of 36% were obtained, while keeping intact the Mb native conformation. The use of high molecular weight polymer and a fast solvent removal rate are 2 parameters inducing significant protein alteration. This work paves the way for the development of O2 carriers for muscular diseases for example