M.Tech. (Construction Management) / The construction industry is an important sector in the development and economic progression of South Africa. Moreover, projects in the South African construction industry involve different individuals and organizations that collaborate to achieve a specific task at a specific time. Hence, leadership is essential in any construction organization to achieve organizational goals and to promote individual professional achievement in the industry. This study evaluates different leadership style practices of construction and project managers in the South African construction industry. The study further investigates leadership development approaches in the industry. The data used in this research were derived from both primary and secondary sources. The secondary data were collected via a detailed review of related literature. The primary data were collected through a structured questionnaire aimed at 150 construction and project managers in the South African construction industry. The study revealed that project and construction managers in the South African construction industry prefer transformational leadership, followed by transactional and democratic leadership. It was also revealed that communication skills, vision, honesty and reliability are some of the important traits of a project leader. This study also suggests ways in which leaders can be developed in the construction industry. Formal leadership training, mentoring and personal development are highlighted as some of the ways in which construction leaders can be developed in the construction industry. It is therefore recommended that construction organizations in South Africa should invest more than they are currently doing in leadership development programs, so that future project and construction managers can be developed to be effective leaders in the industry. The current study contributes to the body of knowledge on the subject of leadership in the construction industry. The value of the study is to facilitate and understand the different leadership style practices in the construction industry and to determine the relationship between leadership styles and project success. This research also provides new information on how to improve leadership in the South African construction industry.

M.Ing. / The research is based on the complexity of project management and risk management fields and how applying each field on its own can be problematic. This poses an everyday challenge to project managers when implemented simultaneously and such a problem predominantly exists in the engineering construction field.The challenge faced by project managers is approached throughout the research study by introducing a commonly used six order matrix framework with a high success rate in analysing and dissecting complex fields into small fragments. The framework is known as the Zachman Framework for Enterprise Architecture. However this is only done once a thorough literature review of both project and risk management as well as the limitations of the Zachman Framework have been well documented.Once the Zachman Framework for Construction adaptation is complete, it is then applied to an inner city construction case study. The results of the case study are used to determine if throughout the project lifecycle it has been possible to analyse and implement all project and risk management requirements simultaneously with little or no correction of project constraints.Using a developed integrated risk management tool which graphically tracks aggregate risk( s) in cost and time together with the Zachman Framework for Construction, the case study results reveal that it is possible to increase the ability to simultaneously manage risk and normal activities by concluding that the project constraints (i.e. cost) are accurately estimated and accomplished. In conclusion the research study,discussion and recommendations are made in order to implement all cells within the Zachman Framework for Construction therefore increasing the success of any project and risk management construction field.

A project can be defined as a temporary work that is within the scope of time and budget in terms of achieving a project goal. Due to the fact that construction projects are unique and usually very complex, project management therefore requires a working method that is adapted to the prerequisites of the project. The project manager's responsibility to follow up on the budget and ensure that resources such as working hours and consulting services are distributed correctly, is becoming increasingly challenging as the change paradox shows that flexibility decreases and costs for changes increase as the project progresses. Exceeding the project budget in construction projects has today become a global phenomenon and involves several negative social effects. Scientific studies show that the increased costs can be derived from deviations such as additions and changes during the construction project. On the other hand, there are perceived gaps in the literature for which factors affect the extent of these and thus became the study's area of ​​investigation. Based on the scientific gap, the study aims to analyze the startup process in smaller construction projects with regard to identifying the factors that have an impact on additions, but also to review how project managers can proactively manage these factors in order to reduce the risk of increased deviations. To answer the research questions and purpose, a qualitative case study has been applied to a global consulting company in the construction industry, where semi-structured interviews were conducted with five project managers at the company.   The result of the study shows that project managers do not take preventive measures or work to prevent deviations in the startup process. Based on a thematic analysis of the results, factors with an impact on deviations have been identified in three areas; systematics, communication and experience and competence. The study has shown that increased costs for additions and changes can be deduced from different approaches to project management and misleading information, inadequate requirement specification that leaves room for own interpretation, unspecified communication channels, conflicts, lack of competence and abrupt completions of the project. In order to achieve a more proactive startup process in order to prevent increased costs for additions and changes, project managers should ensure a clear requirement specification by discussing important issues and decisions, requirements and expectations with support from templates and checklists. To avoid misunderstandings and conflicts, a communication plan can be established. Finally, the choice of project model should be established and routines for final reporting should be introduced to create a learning organisation that increases the project managers' self-insight and competence regarding increased costs for additions and project changes. The theoretical contribution of the study is the identified factors within three areas as well as suggestions for how project managers can facilitate the management of additions in the startup process of construction projects. / Ett projekt kan definieras som ett tillfälligt arbete som förhåller sig inom ramarna för tid, budget och omfattning i avseende att uppnå ett projektmål. Med anledning av att byggprojekt är unika och vanligen mycket komplexa, är projektledare i behov av verktyg och arbetsmetoder som anpassas utifrån projektets förutsättningar. Projektledarens ansvar att följa upp budget och se till att resurser såsom arbetstid och konsulttjänster fördelas rätt, blir allt mer utmanande under projektets gång då ändringsparadoxen påvisar att flexibiliteten minskar och kostnader för ändringar ökar i takt med projektets fortgång. Överskridande av projektbudget inom byggprojekt har idag kommit att bli ett globalt fenomen och innebär flera negativa samhällseffekter. Vetenskapliga studier visar att de ökade kostnaderna kan härledas till tillägg och ändringar under byggprojektet. Däremot upplevs det finnas luckor i litteraturen för vilka faktorer som inverkar på omfattningen för dessa och detta blev således studiens undersökningsområde. Utifrån det vetenskapliga gapet syftar studien till att analysera uppstartsprocessen i mindre byggprojekt i avseende att identifiera de faktorer som har en inverkan på tillägg, men även till att se över hur projektledare kan hantera dessa faktorer för att minska risken för ökade kostnader vid tillägg. För att besvara rapportens frågeställningar och syfte har en kvalitativ fallstudie tillämpats hos ett globalt konsultbolag inom byggbranschen, där semistrukturerade intervjuer genomfördes med fem projektledare på företaget. Resultatet av studien visar att projektledare inte vidtar förebyggande åtgärder eller arbetar för att förhindra tillägg i uppstartsprocessen. Utifrån en tematisk analys av resultatet har faktorer med en påverkan på tillägg kunnat identifieras inom tre områden; systematik, kommunikation samt erfarenhet och kompetens. Studien har visat att ökade kostnader vid tillägg och ändringar går att härleda till olika tillvägagångssätt vid projektledning och vilseledande information, bristfällig kravspecifikation som lämnar utrymme för egen tolkning, ospecificerade kommunikationsvägar, konflikter, bristande kompetens hos projektledaren samt abrupta projektavslut. För att uppnå en mer proaktiv uppstartsprocess i syfte att förhindra ökade kostnader vid tillägg och ändringar bör projektledare säkerställa en tydlig kravspecifikation genom att diskutera viktiga frågor och beslut, krav och förväntningar med stöd från mallar och checklistor. För att undvika missförstånd och konflikter kan en kommunikationsplan upprättas. Avslutningsvis bör val av projektmodell fastställas och rutiner för slutrapportering införas för att skapa en lärande organisation som ökar projektledarnas självinsikt och kompetens vad gäller ökade kostnader för tillägg och ändringar. Studiens teoretiska bidrag är bidragsfaktorer som identifierats inom tre områden samt förslag till hur projektledare kan underlätta hantering av tillägg i uppstartsprocessen av byggprojekt.

Optimization of time and cost in construction projects has been subject to extensive research since the development of the Critical Path Method (CPM). Many researchers have investigated various versions of the well-known Time-Cost Trade-off (TCT) problem including linear, convex, concave, and also the discrete (DTCT) version. Traditional methods in the literature for optimizing time and cost of construction projects range from mathematical methods to evolutionary-based ones, such as genetic algorithms, particle swarm, ant-colony, and leap frog optimization. However, none of the existing research studies has dealt with the optimization of large-scale projects in which any small saving would be significant. Traditional approaches have all been applied to projects of less than 100 activities which are far less than what exists in real-world construction projects. The objective of this study is to utilize recent developments in computation technology and novel optimization techniques such as Constraint Programming (CP) to improve the current limitations in solving large-scale DTCT problems. Throughout the first part of this research, an Excel-based TCT model has been developed to investigate the performance of traditional optimization methods, such as mathematical programming and genetic algorithms, for solving large TCT problems. The result of several experimentations confirms the inefficiency of traditional methods for optimizing large TCT problems. Subsequently, a TCT model has been developed using Optimization Programming Language (OPL) to implement the Constraint Programming (CP) technique. CP Optimizer of IBM ILOG Optimization Studio has been used to solve the model and to successfully optimize several projects ranging from a small project of 18 activities to very large projects consisting of more than 10,000 activities. Constraint programming proved to be very efficient in solving large-scale TCT problems, generating substantially better results in terms of solution quality and processing speed. While traditional optimization methods have been used to optimize projects consisting of less than one hundred activities, constraint programming demonstrated its capability of solving TCT problems comprising of thousands of activities. As such, the developed model represents a significant improvement in optimization of time and cost of large-scale construction projects and can greatly enhance the level of planning and control in such projects.

Optimization of time and cost in construction projects has been subject to extensive research since the development of the Critical Path Method (CPM). Many researchers have investigated various versions of the well-known Time-Cost Trade-off (TCT) problem including linear, convex, concave, and also the discrete (DTCT) version. Traditional methods in the literature for optimizing time and cost of construction projects range from mathematical methods to evolutionary-based ones, such as genetic algorithms, particle swarm, ant-colony, and leap frog optimization. However, none of the existing research studies has dealt with the optimization of large-scale projects in which any small saving would be significant. Traditional approaches have all been applied to projects of less than 100 activities which are far less than what exists in real-world construction projects. The objective of this study is to utilize recent developments in computation technology and novel optimization techniques such as Constraint Programming (CP) to improve the current limitations in solving large-scale DTCT problems. Throughout the first part of this research, an Excel-based TCT model has been developed to investigate the performance of traditional optimization methods, such as mathematical programming and genetic algorithms, for solving large TCT problems. The result of several experimentations confirms the inefficiency of traditional methods for optimizing large TCT problems. Subsequently, a TCT model has been developed using Optimization Programming Language (OPL) to implement the Constraint Programming (CP) technique. CP Optimizer of IBM ILOG Optimization Studio has been used to solve the model and to successfully optimize several projects ranging from a small project of 18 activities to very large projects consisting of more than 10,000 activities. Constraint programming proved to be very efficient in solving large-scale TCT problems, generating substantially better results in terms of solution quality and processing speed. While traditional optimization methods have been used to optimize projects consisting of less than one hundred activities, constraint programming demonstrated its capability of solving TCT problems comprising of thousands of activities. As such, the developed model represents a significant improvement in optimization of time and cost of large-scale construction projects and can greatly enhance the level of planning and control in such projects.

Project risk assessment is an effective tool for planning and controlling cost, time and achieving the technical performance of a building construction project. Construction projects often face a lot of uncertainties, which places building construction projects at the risk of cost, time overruns as well as poor quality delivery. Considering the limited resources of developing countries, there is need to complete building projects on-time, on-budget, and to meet optimal quality hence, risk management is an important part of the decision making process in construction industry as it determines the success or failure of construction projects. In line with this need, this research aims to establish a system to improve the time, cost and quality performance of building construction projects in developing countries, through a comprehensive risk management model that ensures the expectations of clients are met. To achieve the aim of this research, a mixed methodological approach was adopted. Through the review of literature, a conceptual risk management framework suitable to elaborate risk assessment of building construction projects especially for developing countries was developed. A questionnaire survey using a nonprobability sampling technique was conducted to elicit information from construction professionals in Nigeria to assess their perception of 79 risk factors identified from literature review based on the likelihood of occurrence and impact on projects using a five point scale. Responses from 343 construction professionals were drawn from 305 contractors and subcontractors and 38 clients (private and public) within the Nigerian construction sector. Response data was subjected to descriptive statistics to depict the frequency distribution and central tendency of responses. Subsequently, the risk acceptability matrix (RAM) was adopted to categorise and prioritise risk factors. 27 critical risks that affect building construction projects were identified. A Bayesian Belief Network (BBN) model was developed by structural learning and used to examine the cause and effect relationship amongst the 27 critical risk factors. The developed BBN model was subjected to validation using a multiple case study of two building construction projects in Nigeria. The result showed the interrelation between the 27 risk factors and how they contributed to cost and time overruns as well as quality problems. The critical risks directly affecting the cost of building construction project were: fluctuation of material prices; health and safety issues; bribery and corruption; material wastage; poor site management and supervision; and time overruns. The critical factors identified to directly affect quality were: supply of defective materials; working under harsh conditions; improper construction methods; lack of protective equipment; ineffective time allocation; poor communication between involved stakeholders; and unsuitable leadership style. Time overruns on building construction projects was directly caused by: quality problems; low productivity; improper construction methods; poor communication between involved parties; delayed payments in contracts; and poor site management and supervision. As a consolidation of the findings of this research, a BBN model for identifying risk factors that directly affect time, cost and quality on building construction projects has been developed which has the potential for assisting construction stake holders to manage risks on their projects. In view of the findings, a best practice system for risk management in building construction projects in Nigeria has been developed with an implementation guide to help building construction practitioners to successfully implement risk management on their building construction projects. Suitable risk responses, also in the form of recommendations have been identified. The strategies include actions to be taken to respond to risks based on their perceived significance or acceptability as well as some positive risk responses, such as exploiting, sharing, enhancing and accepting, and other negative risk responses, such as avoidance, mitigation transfer and acceptance.

Knowledge management (KM) implementation strategies on construction projects can reap benefits such as improved performance and continuous improvement yet many projects are characterised by inefficiencies, repetition of mistakes and lack of lessons learnt. Poor skills, design changes, errors and omissions contribute to the internal failure cost element of the Cost of Poor Quality (COPQ) while the resultant effect of client dissatisfaction contributes to the external failure cost. COPQ is prevalent regardless of project type and has been found to be over 10% of total project cost in certain cases. While the need to reduce COPQ is definite, it is uncertain what impact KM has in its reduction. The aims of the research therefore are twofold (i) to investigate the impact of KM in reducing COPQ on construction projects (ii) to develop a KM framework for reducing COPQ on construction projects. A mixed method approach was adopted for the research with an exploratory sequential research design utilising both qualitative and quantitative inquiries to address the research aims. Semi-structured interviews and questionnaire survey were selected as the method for qualitative and quantitative data collection respectively. The interviews were conducted with 25 industry experts involved in KM strategies for large construction organisations across UK to obtain data, based on their experiences and expertise on projects, which were then analysed using content analysis. The output from the analysis yielded variables and working hypotheses which were tested through the questionnaire survey. Further data were obtained from 114 survey respondents who have iii been mostly involved in KM initiatives for large construction organisations across UK. The data was analysed using descriptive statistics. From the interpretation of the entire qualitative and quantitative data, it was found that KM can be complex and difficult to manage within organisations and on projects. Although KM was perceived to have positive impact in reducing COPQ, organisations did not, and could not quantify COPQ neither could they measure the extent of the impact of KM on COPQ. Causal links were found between COPQ elements i.e. errors and omissions, design changes and poor skills, contrary to the theoretical suggestion of being mutually exclusive. It was found that KM currently has not been optimised to reduce COPQ due to a number of barriers. Optimising KM to reduce COPQ therefore involves overcoming the barriers as follows: develop performance metrics to assess the impact of KM on COPQ on projects; appoint knowledge champions to facilitate KM activities to reduce COPQ; adopt a positive organisational culture towards KM; allocate adequate time and budget for KM activities on projects; select procurement strategies that support and facilitate KM. A KM framework for reducing COPQ on construction projects was developed as an output of the research and evaluated by industry practitioners. It can be concluded that the optimisation of KM can significantly reduce COPQ. A key recommendation for industry practitioners therefore is to adopt a holistic approach to quantifying COPQ and assessing the impact of KM in reducing COPQ such as the one presented in this research. The research contributes to the body of knowledge in the area of cost reduction, quality improvements and knowledge management on projects.

A dissertation presented to the Higher Degrees Committee of the Cape Peninsula University of Technology in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Technology: Construction Management, 2012 / This study investigated the underlying causes of rework in construction projects and the impact on overall project performance so that effective containment and reduction strategies can be developed. The objectives of the study were as follows: (i) to determine the influence different project types have on the causes of rework in construction projects; (ii) to determine the impact of rework on organisational and project performance; (iii) to determine the influence various project types have on rework costs (direct and indirect) in construction projects; (iv) to determine the influence various procurement methods have on total rework costs in construction projects; (v) to design and develop rework reduction and containment strategies. The research was motivated by several international and local studies demonstrating a lack of concern for the root causes of rework and the potential impact on cost, overall project performance, and the ‘value-addedness’ to the completed project. The research approach adopted included an exploratory and main study targeting purposively selected construction professionals and stakeholders in the Cape Peninsula metropolitan area of the Western Cape Province. The exploratory case study was carried out at the initial stage of the study to gain more insight into the causes and impact of rework on overall project performance. Specifically, data was collected by means of observation of physical works, semi-structured interviews with relevant parties directly involved in site operation and the analysis of site instruction record documents. The main study obtained data from 78 construction professionals and stakeholders via questionnaire survey, a survey conducted among design consultants and contractors in the general building category ranging from grade 3 to 9 who are registered with Construction Industry Development Board (CIDB). Descriptive, inferential statistics and probability distribution functions were used to analyse the data. The findings revealed that changes initiated by the client, changes initiated by the design team due to errors and omissions, poor coordination, and finally, integration among the design team were the major contributing factors to rework. Moreover, non-compliance with specifications, setting-out errors, low labour skills, and emphasis on time and cost aggravated the occurrence of rework on site. The study revealed that while there is no significant difference between the causes of rework and various project types, rework can and often does make a significant contribution to any project’s cost overrun. The total mean cost of rework as a percentage of the original contract value for new build project and refurbishment/renovation projects was 4.89% and 6.28% respectively. However, rework costs do not differ relative to project type or procurement method. Furthermore, the study revealed that cost overruns, time overruns and design team dissatisfaction all impacted on project performance. The findings indicate that designrelated rework can be minimised by implementing the following strategies: team building, involvement of subcontractors and suppliers, and design for construction. Moreover, involvement of subcontractors during construction, and the implementation of quality control and site quality management systems could also lead to reduction in rework during the construction phase. Furthermore, the probabilistic analysis of rework occurrence was determined in the projects selected; this analysis predicts the occurrence of rework so that a quantitative risk assessment could be undertaken prior to the commencement of construction. The research concludes by recommending that design and construction firms must develop organisational measurement systems for recording rework occurrence and its associated costs. It is by determining the frequency and costs of rework that effective strategies for its containment and reduction can be identified.

Uncertainty is a major reason of low efficiency in construction projects. Traditional approaches in dealing with uncertainty in projects focus on risk identification, mitigation, and transfer. These risk-based approaches may protect projects from identified risks. However, they cannot ensure the success of projects in environments with deep uncertainty. Hence, there is a need for a paradigm shift from risk-based to resilience-based approaches. A resilience-based approach focuses on enhancing project resilience as a capability to cope with known and unknown uncertainty. The objective of this research is to fill the knowledge gap and create the theory of resilience in the context of complex construction project systems. A simulation approach for theory development was adopted in this research. The simulation framework was developed based on theoretical elements from complex systems and network science. In the simulation framework, complex projects are conceptualized as meta-networks composed of four types of nodes: human agents, information, resources, and tasks. The impacts of uncertainty are translated into perturbations in nodes and links in project meta-networks. Accordingly, project resilience is investigated based on two components: project vulnerability (i.e., the decrease in meta-network efficiency under uncertainty) and adaptive capacity (i.e., the speed and capability to recover from uncertainty). Simulation experiments were conducted using the proposed framework and data collected from three complex commercial construction project cases. Different scenarios related to uncertainty-induced perturbations and planning strategies in the cases were evaluated through the use of Monte Carlo simulation. Three sets of theoretical constructs related to project resilience were identified from the simulation results: (1) Project vulnerability is positively correlated with exposure to uncertainty and project complexity; (2) Project resilience is positively correlated with adaptive capacity, and negatively correlated with vulnerability; (3) Different planning strategies affect project resilience either by changing the level of vulnerability or adaptive capacity. The effectiveness of a planning strategy is different in different projects. Also, there is a diminishing effect in effectiveness when adopting multiple planning strategies. The results highlighted the significance of the proposed framework in providing a better understanding of project resilience and facilitating predictive assessment and proactive management of project performance under uncertainty.

In general, dreams are conceived, ideas are conceptualised, and initiatives are embarked upon in order to alter the state of realities. Dreams change realities; when mechanisms are put in place to realise them, dreams succeed. However, anecdotal evidence as well as empirical findings has continued to reiterate the difficulties associated with realising dreams related to construction projects. Extending the „dream‟ analogy to the South African construction industry context therefore paints an uninspiring picture. Dreams associated with construction do not have a 100% chance of becoming realities as evident in reported poor project performance in the industry. Shattered dreams in the form of poor performing projects, poorly implemented construction processes, or worst, projects delivered at the expense of unexpected cost to the client as a direct result of poor H&S or time overruns, negate the intent of dreams. This thesis is primarily concerned with project performance related bottlenecks in South African construction. After an extensive review of related literature that entails the analysis of publications related to non-value adding activities (NVAAs), supply chain management (SCM), and system dynamics (SD) in the construction project management realm, an exhaustive mixed-mode quantitative survey was conducted among key participants in the South African infrastructure sector. Public sector clients, consulting engineers and contractors that were involved in civil engineering projects were surveyed repeatedly with approximately five survey instruments at convenient intervals. Results arising from the study, inter-alia, indicate that: an appreciable amount of NVAAs occur in South African construction; these NVAAs become further compounded when propagated into other value adding activities (VAAs) in the construction process; the identified NVAAs equally perpetrate the menace associated with poor performance to the detriment of the achievement of cost, H&S, quality, and time project targets, and the root cause of these NVAAs that often contribute to poor performance is not far from the much reported „shortage of skills‟ in South Africa. Notable contributions to the body of knowledge include SD models are extendable regardless of the source of their empirical data as evident in the qualitative models proposed in this study; within the SD domain, it is advisable to consider the „competence‟ of individuals assigned to tasks especially in a developing country as this study revealed that human resources issues predominate among the sources of NVAAs that eventuate in a range of poor project performance; the NVAAs that occur, and their causes on projects are perceived to be due to lapses and / or inadequacies that involved the entire construction supply chain; there is no single construction process / task that is immune from being affected by NVAAs; and within the South African, and by implication construction context generally iii in developing countries, the adequacy of required knowledge among project stakeholders is the most crucial determinant of project performance. As opposed to what is obtainable in developed countries, the construction industry in developing countries, particularly in South Africa, should take advantage of knowledge management (KM) techniques such as brainstorming, communities of practices, and face-to-face interactions. These techniques can be driven through appropriate mentorship programmes, industry focused built environment education, and other human resources driven avenues that do not necessarily require substantial investment in technologies, so that to a large extent organisations in the industry can prioritise KM, and thereafter, continually engage in it for future performance improvement. Using inferential statistical methods for hypotheses testing, and SD concepts for creating qualitative models led to a range of recommendations which, inter-alia, propose that halting the tide of NVAAs and poor performance requires the management of both tacit and explicit knowledge gained in construction; and most importantly, it requires the assurance that „competence‟ is the overriding criteria for selecting project partners, and also, for assigning either design or construction related activities to responsible parties involved in project realisation in South Africa. In effect, in order to engender a culture of continuous improvement in South African construction, other considerations should be subservient to „competence‟ in the construction supply chain. Competence must be located among everyone involved in project realisation, that is, enhancing the competence of all involved in project realisation is as good as ensuring performance improvement, which in turn, equates to the acceleration of project delivery in South Africa.