The generalized data which are presented in this thesis are the culmination of the determination of the foil depression factor using oblate spheroidal coordinates.

Knowledge of the lane that a target is located in is of particular interest in on-road surveillance and target tracking systems. We formulate the problem and propose two approaches for on-road target estimation with lane tracking. The first approach for lane tracking is lane identification based ona Hidden Markov Model (HMM) framework. Two identifiers are developed according to different optimality goals of identification, i.e., the optimality for the whole lane sequence and the optimality of the current lane where the target is given the whole observation sequence. The second approach is on-road target tracking with lane estimation. We propose a 2D road representation which additionally allows to model the lateral motion of the target. For fusion of the radar and image sensor based measurement data we develop three, IMM-based, estimators that use different fusion schemes: centralized, distributed, and sequential. Simulation results show that the proposed two methods have new capabilities and achieve improved estimation accuracy for on-road target tracking.

Claudius Ptolemy composed his Geography in the city of Alexandria, one of the most prominent intellectual centres of the Roman Empire. His work offers a comprehensive description of the known world as well as insight into the practice of scholarly geography during the second century CE. Ptolemy’s most important innovation in this field was his use of geographical coordinates to create maps of the world, and his catalogue, with its latitudes and longitudes of thousands of localities, is one of our most valuable sources on the antique oikoumenē. Very little is known, however, about the sources and working methods that Ptolemy employed to produce his Geography. This book focuses on Ptolemy’s description of the Iberian peninsula and examines two problematic and interlinked topics relating to the origins of the catalogue of localities: Ptolemy’s sources and scientific methods on the one hand, and the textual transmission of the Geography, from Ptolemy to the extant manuscripts, on the other.

As Máquinas de Medir a Três Coordenadas (MM3Cs) possuem erros inerentes à sua estrutura que afetam a exatidão e a repetibilidade das medições. Dos erros presentes nessas máquinas, os erros geométricos são, na maioria das vezes, os de maior influência. O resultado da combinação destes erros em cada uma das direções preferenciais é denominado componente do erro volumétrico. Assim, torna-se de vital importância conhecer a relação existente entre as variáveis envolvidas num processo de medição qualquer, ou seja, a relação entre as coordenadas dos pontos medidos, os erros geométricos e as componentes do erro volumétrico. Diversos métodos foram propostos para modelar o comportamento dos erros nas MM3Cs. Entretanto não existem, ainda, modelos matemáticos obtidos a partir de dados experimentais que descrevam e caracterizem estes erros. Por tal motivo este trabalho apresenta uma metodologia geral para equacionar as componentes do erro volumétrico em MM3Cs, utilizando técnicas de regressão múltipla. Esta ferramenta permite de forma simples equacionar e prever o erro volumétrico da máquina avaliada. A metodologia foi aplicada a uma MM3C do tipo \"Ponte Móvel\". Foram obtidas três equações de regressão, uma para cada componente do erro, a partir de dados levantados através da calibração direta, especificamente o método do volume dividido. A adequabilidade do modelo foi avaliada estatisticamente. Os resultados obtidos foram discutidos e comparados com os resultados obtidos através da calibração utilizando-se uma barra de esferas, constatando-se uma excelente capacidade do modelo na previsão do erro total da máquina. Ainda, efetuo-se a compensação do erro volumétrico em duas diagonais do volume de trabalho da máquina avaliada utilizando-se o modelo proposto, neste caso, o erro foi diminuído sensivelmente. / The accuracy and the repeatability of measurements of Three Coordinates Measuring Machines (CMM) are affected by several errors. Among them, geometrical errors are the most influents in the most experimental cases. The result of geometric errors combination in each of the preferentials directions is denominated of volumetric error components. Thus, its possible to know the existent relationship between coordinates of measured points and volumetric error components. Several methods have been proposed to model the behavior of the volumetric error in CMM as a function of the X, Y and Z coordinates. However, sofar from experimental measurements of the volumetric error has bem proposed mathematical model for the descriptions and characterizations of errors was obtained. In this work is presented a general methodology to obtain a mathematical equation and prediction of them components of the volumetric errors, using multiple regression. The methodology was applied at a of \"Moving Bridge\" CMM type. Were obtained three regression equations, one for each component of the error, starting from data collected by direct calibration, specifically by the divided volume method. The model was evaluated statistically. The simulated results were evaluated, discussed and compared with the results obtained through the ball bar calibration, showing an excellent capacity of the model in the prediction of the volumetric error of the machine. Besides was made the compensation of the volumetric error in two diagonals of the working volume of the appraised machine using the proposed model, in this case the error was minimized sensibly.

The development and numerical implementation of a three-dimensional Particle-In-Cell (PIC) methodology on unstructured Voronoi-Delauney tetrahedral grids is presented. Charge assignment and field interpolation weighting schemes of zero- and first-order are formulated based on the theory of long-range constraints for three-dimensional unstructured grids. The algorithms for particle motion, particle tracing, particle injection, and loading are discussed. Solution to Poisson's equation is based on a finite-volume formulation that takes advantage of the Voronoi-Delauney dual. The PIC methodology and code are validated by application to the problem of current collection by cylindrical Langmuir probes in stationary and moving collisionless plasmas. Numerical results are compared favorably with previous numerical and analytical solutions for a wide range of probe radius to Debye length ratios, probe potentials, and electron to ion temperature ratios. A methodology for evaluation of the heating, slowing-down and deflection times in 3D PIC simulations is presented. An extensive parametric evaluation is performed and the effects of the number of computational particles per cell, the ratio of cell-edge to Debye length, and timestep are investigated. The unstructured PIC code is applied to the simulation of Field Emission Array (FEA) cathodes. Electron injection conditions are obtained from a Field Emission microtip model and the simulation domain includes the FEA cathode and anode. Currents collected by the electrodes are compared to theoretical values. Simulations show the formation of the virtual cathode and three-dimensional effects under certain injection conditions. The unstructured PIC code is also applied to the simulation of a micro-Retarding Potential Analyzer. For simple cases the current at the collector plate is compared favorably with theoretical predictions. The simulations show the complex structure of the potential inside the segmented microchannel, the phase space of plasma species and the space-charge effects not captured by the theory.

Traditional visualization techniques for multidimensional data sets, such as parallel coordinates, star glyphs, and scatterplot matrices, do not scale well to high dimensional data sets. A common approach to solve this problem is dimensionality reduction. Existing dimensionality reduction techniques, such as Principal Component Analysis, Multidimensional Scaling, and Self Organizing Maps, have serious drawbacks in that the generated low dimensional subspace has no intuitive meaning to users. In addition, little user interaction is allowed in those highly automatic processes. In this thesis, we propose a new methodology to dimensionality reduction that combines automation and user interaction for the generation of meaningful subspaces, called the visual hierarchical dimension reduction (VHDR) framework. Firstly, VHDR groups all dimensions of a data set into a dimension hierarchy. This hierarchy is then visualized using a radial space-filling hierarchy visualization tool called Sunburst. Thus users are allowed to interactively explore and modify the dimension hierarchy, and select clusters at different levels of detail for the data display. VHDR then assigns a representative dimension to each dimension cluster selected by the users. Finally, VHDR maps the high-dimensional data set into the subspace composed of these representative dimensions and displays the projected subspace. To accomplish the latter, we have designed several extensions to existing popular multidimensional display techniques, such as parallel coordinates, star glyphs, and scatterplot matrices. These displays have been enhanced to express semantics of the selected subspace, such as the context of the dimensions and dissimilarity among the individual dimensions in a cluster. We have implemented all these features and incorporated them into the XmdvTool software package, which will be released as XmdvTool Version 6.0. Lastly, we developed two case studies to show how we apply VHDR to visualize and interactively explore a high dimensional data set.

Com o desenvolvimento de novas tecnologias, os instrumentos utilizados para levantamentos na Mensuração sofreram profundas modificações. Muitos equipamentos e técnicas foram substituídos e outros até se tornaram obsoletos. O aparecimento de novas opções e técnicas de medições criam sempre dificuldades na vinculação entre levantamentos. Atualmente se utilizam as estações totais e o GPS (global positioning system) para levantamentos de pontos e áreas criando diferentes superfícies de referência e de projeção, tornando difícil a análise dos dados observados em conjunto das diferentes técnicas. Para tanto é necessário transformar as observações de um sistema de referência para outro, tornando-as compatíveis. Como não se tem uma descrição da maneira de proceder ao ajustamento dos dados das diferentes técnicas, este trabalho tem por objetivo o ajustamento destas observações (GPS e estação total) combinados e em separado e comparar os resultados das coordenadas e precisões com as precisões estabelecidas pela NBR 13.133 de 1994. / The development of new tecnologies brought deep modifications in the instruments used for surveying in the measuration. Many equipaments and techinics were substituted and others became obsolete. The new options and technics of measuring always bring dificulties in the link among surveying nowadays it is used Total Stations and GPS (global positioning system) to surveying of points and areas creating different surface of reference and projections; making the analyse of observed data difficult considering the set of different technics. For this, it is necessary to change the observations of a system to another, making them compatible. As we do not have a detailed descriptions of the way to proceed the adjustament of the data from different technics, the aim of this work is to adjust these aobservations (GPS and total station) combined and apart to comper the results of the coordinates and precisions stablished by NBR13.133 of 1994.

O presente trabalho propõe duas novas metodologias para a determinação de coordenadas tridimensionais visando o emprego no controle de obras de engenharia. Os dois métodos propostos fundamentam-se na concepção de um ponto fixo, visível simultaneamente por todos os aparelhos envolvidos no processo e em uma direção de orientação. O primeiro método tem como princípio básico a minimização de uma função matemática, definida pelo somatório das distâncias entre as linhas de visadas dos aparelhos e o alvo. O segundo fundamenta-se no ajustamento pelo Método dos Mínimos Quadrados, aplicado às equações de erros, que são determinadas em função das coordenadas do centro ótico de cada aparelho e dos ângulos zenitais e azimutais medidos. Esse segundo método proporciona, ao mesmo tempo, que sejam estimadas as precisões dos elementos envolvidos no cálculo das coordenadas do alvo e, ainda, ajusta os valores iniciais das coordenadas do centro ótico dos aparelhos. Ambos os métodos podem ser empregados para a verificação de recalques ou deslocamentos estruturais nas provas de carga em obras de engenharia. Os resultados obtidos comprovam que os métodos propostos determinam coordenadas tridimensionais com maior precisão que os principais métodos apresentados na revisão da literatura e podem ser empregados no controle de obras de engenharia. / The purpose of this work is to present new methodologies to determine 3-D coordinates to check engineer works. The two proposed methods are well-founded on a conception of a fixed point and a direction that are proposed. This fixed point must be visible by all surveying equipments envolved in the process to determine 3-D coordinates. The first method presented in this work is based on a mathematic function that must be minimized and this function is defined by the sum of the distances of the target and the sightlines from the surveying equipments directed to the target. The second method presented is based on the L.S.M. adjustment process. This method uses the errors equations that are functions of the 3-D coordinates of the optic center of the surveying equipments envolved in this process. It also uses the azimuth and zenith angles related to the target measured. This method provides at the same time, a way to estimate the precisions of ali elements envolved in 3-D coordinates determination calculus of the target and it also provides the adjustment of the 3-D coordinates of the optic centers of the surveying equipments used to measure the angles. The conception of the orientation point provides more flexibility in a performance of these two methods. The two methods can be employed to check structural displacements and pressing down in charge experiments in engineer works. The results presented in this work validate that these two proposed methods determine 3-D coordinates with more precision and accuracy than the main methods presented in literature revision and may be able to check engineer works.

O presente trabalho propõe duas novas metodologias para a determinação de coordenadas tridimensionais visando o emprego no controle de obras de engenharia. Os dois métodos propostos fundamentam-se na concepção de um ponto fixo, visível simultaneamente por todos os aparelhos envolvidos no processo e em uma direção de orientação. O primeiro método tem como princípio básico a minimização de uma função matemática, definida pelo somatório das distâncias entre as linhas de visadas dos aparelhos e o alvo. O segundo fundamenta-se no ajustamento pelo Método dos Mínimos Quadrados, aplicado às equações de erros, que são determinadas em função das coordenadas do centro ótico de cada aparelho e dos ângulos zenitais e azimutais medidos. Esse segundo método proporciona, ao mesmo tempo, que sejam estimadas as precisões dos elementos envolvidos no cálculo das coordenadas do alvo e, ainda, ajusta os valores iniciais das coordenadas do centro ótico dos aparelhos. Ambos os métodos podem ser empregados para a verificação de recalques ou deslocamentos estruturais nas provas de carga em obras de engenharia. Os resultados obtidos comprovam que os métodos propostos determinam coordenadas tridimensionais com maior precisão que os principais métodos apresentados na revisão da literatura e podem ser empregados no controle de obras de engenharia. / The purpose of this work is to present new methodologies to determine 3-D coordinates to check engineer works. The two proposed methods are well-founded on a conception of a fixed point and a direction that are proposed. This fixed point must be visible by all surveying equipments envolved in the process to determine 3-D coordinates. The first method presented in this work is based on a mathematic function that must be minimized and this function is defined by the sum of the distances of the target and the sightlines from the surveying equipments directed to the target. The second method presented is based on the L.S.M. adjustment process. This method uses the errors equations that are functions of the 3-D coordinates of the optic center of the surveying equipments envolved in this process. It also uses the azimuth and zenith angles related to the target measured. This method provides at the same time, a way to estimate the precisions of ali elements envolved in 3-D coordinates determination calculus of the target and it also provides the adjustment of the 3-D coordinates of the optic centers of the surveying equipments used to measure the angles. The conception of the orientation point provides more flexibility in a performance of these two methods. The two methods can be employed to check structural displacements and pressing down in charge experiments in engineer works. The results presented in this work validate that these two proposed methods determine 3-D coordinates with more precision and accuracy than the main methods presented in literature revision and may be able to check engineer works.

Com o desenvolvimento de novas tecnologias, os instrumentos utilizados para levantamentos na Mensuração sofreram profundas modificações. Muitos equipamentos e técnicas foram substituídos e outros até se tornaram obsoletos. O aparecimento de novas opções e técnicas de medições criam sempre dificuldades na vinculação entre levantamentos. Atualmente se utilizam as estações totais e o GPS (global positioning system) para levantamentos de pontos e áreas criando diferentes superfícies de referência e de projeção, tornando difícil a análise dos dados observados em conjunto das diferentes técnicas. Para tanto é necessário transformar as observações de um sistema de referência para outro, tornando-as compatíveis. Como não se tem uma descrição da maneira de proceder ao ajustamento dos dados das diferentes técnicas, este trabalho tem por objetivo o ajustamento destas observações (GPS e estação total) combinados e em separado e comparar os resultados das coordenadas e precisões com as precisões estabelecidas pela NBR 13.133 de 1994. / The development of new tecnologies brought deep modifications in the instruments used for surveying in the measuration. Many equipaments and techinics were substituted and others became obsolete. The new options and technics of measuring always bring dificulties in the link among surveying nowadays it is used Total Stations and GPS (global positioning system) to surveying of points and areas creating different surface of reference and projections; making the analyse of observed data difficult considering the set of different technics. For this, it is necessary to change the observations of a system to another, making them compatible. As we do not have a detailed descriptions of the way to proceed the adjustament of the data from different technics, the aim of this work is to adjust these aobservations (GPS and total station) combined and apart to comper the results of the coordinates and precisions stablished by NBR13.133 of 1994.