L'apparition croissante de bactéries pathogènes multi-résistantes à la plupart des antibiotiques disponibles apparaît comme un problème mondial de santé publique. Malheureusement, un usage excessif à la fois en médecine humaine et animale a conduit à l’apparition de souches multi-résistantes à la plupart des antibiotiques disponibles sur le marché. Il est donc urgent de mieux comprendre les mécanismes mis en place par les bactéries pour résister aux antibiotiques afin de trouver des solutions pour combattre les souches multi-résistances.Dans ce contexte, le projet de la thèse vise à mieux comprendre les bases moléculaires de l’efflux actif de drogues chez Pseudomonas aeruginosa, qui est un des plus importants mécanismes utilisés par la bactérie pour lutter contre l’action de plusieurs antibiotiques. Les systèmes d’efflux forment des complexes protéiques situés dans la paroi de la bactérie et expulsent de manière active les antibiotiques avant même qu’ils aient pu atteindre leur cible intracellulaire, les rendant ainsi inactif.L’étude structurale se focalise sur le système RND (Resistance-Nodulation and cell Division) MexA-MexB-OprM qui est constitutivement exprimé chez la bactérie sauvage et est surexprimé chez les souches résistantes. Ce complexe tripartite est composé d'un transporteur inséré dans la membrane interne, d'une protéine canal insérée dans la membrane externe et d’une protéine adaptatrice périplasmique qui relie les deux autres protéines pour former un conduit étanche traversant le périplasme. En l’absence de la connaissance de la structure du complexe tripartite, l’objectif de la thèse a été de développer une stratégie originale pour reconstituer in vitro le complexe entier dans un environnement lipidique à partir des trois composants natifs produits séparément.L’assemblage du complexe tripartite est réalisé en mélangeant MexB et OprM en Nanodisque avec MexA mimant les deux bicouches lipidiques. La structure de ce complexe tripartite a été obtenu en combinant la cryo microscopie électronique et à l’approche dite ‘des particules isolées’. La structure tridimensionnelle du complexe calculée à une résolution inférieure à 4 Å a permis de construire un modèle atomique du complexe tripartite assemblé entre deux Nanodisques.Le complexe tripartite est composé d’un trimère d’OprM, d’un trimère de MexB et d’un hexamère de MexA entourant MexB et en interaction avec OprM. Ces données ont permis de résoudre la structure complète de MexA dans le complexe dont la partie N-terminale jusqu’alors inconnue car trop flexible et décrivent pour la première fois l’ancrage de MexA dans une membrane lipidique. Les changements conformationnels sont observés sur OprM et MexB lorsqu’ils sont engagés dans le complexe avec l’ouverture de l’extrémité périplasmique d’OprM et le basculement d’une boucle de MexB permettant d’établir un contact supplémentaire avec MexA.Pour replacer cette structure tripartite dans le cycle d’efflux de l’antibiotique, celle-ci décrit un état qui s’apparente probablement à un état au repos, sachant qu’aucun ligand spécifique n’a été ajouté au cours de l’assemblage. De plus, le complexe forme un canal ouvert à son extrémité extracellulaire, fournissant le conduit pour évacuer les drogues transportées par MexB qui utilise la force protomotrice comme source d’énergie.Ce travail ouvre la perspective à des études structurales d’autres états conformationnels du système d’efflux en condition « énergisé » pour compléter la compréhension du mécanisme du cycle d’efflux. Par ailleurs, la connaissance de cette première structure du complexe natif tripartite constitue le premier pas vers le développement de molécules capables de bloquer l’assemblage du complexe à des fins thérapeutiques. En effet, de telles molécules inhiberaient l’efflux actif et restauraient l’efficacité perdue des antibiotiques actuels. / The increasing appearance of multi-drug-resistant pathogenic bacteria to most available antibiotics is emerging as a global public health problem. Unfortunately, excessive use in both human and animal medicine has led to the emergence of multi-drug-resistant strains for most antibiotics available on the market. It is therefore urgent to better understand the underlying mechanisms by which bacteria resist to antibiotics to combat multi-resistance strains. In this context, this work aims at better understanding the molecular basis of active drug efflux in Pseudomonas aeruginosa, which is one of the most important mechanisms used by the bacterium to resist to several antibiotics. Efflux systems form protein complexes in the bacterial wall and actively expel antibiotics even before they reach their intracellular target, rendering them inactive. The structural study focuses on the MexA-MexB-OprM RND (Resistance-Nodulation and cell Division) system that is constitutively expressed in wild-type bacteria and is over-expressed in resistant strains. This tripartite complex is composed of a transporter inserted into the inner membrane, a channel protein inserted in the outer membrane and a periplasmic adapter protein that connects the other two proteins to form a sealed conduit through the periplasm. In the absence of knowledge of the structure of the tripartite complex, the aim of the thesis was to develop an original strategy to reconstitute the whole complex in vitro in a lipid environment from the three native components produced separately.The assembly of the tripartite complex is made by mixing MexA with MexB and OprM in Nanodisc mimicking the two lipid bilayers. The structure of this tripartite complex was obtained by combining cryo electron microscopy and the so-called 'isolated particles' approach. The three-dimensional structure of the complex, calculated at a resolution of less than 4 Å, was used to build an atomic model of the tripartite complex assembled between two Nanodiscs. The tripartite complex is composed of an OprM trimer, a MexB trimer and a MexA hexamer surrounding MexB and interacting with OprM. We solve the complete structure of MexA whose N-terminal part hitherto unknown because of a high flexibility and describe for the first time the anchoring of MexA in a lipid membrane. The conformational changes are observed on OprM and MexB when they are assembled in the complex with the opening of the periplasmic end of OprM and the spatial re-orientation of a MexB loop to establish additional contact with MexA.To integrate this tripartite structure into the antibiotic efflux cycle, it describes a state that is probably a resting state, knowing that no specific ligand was added during assembly. In addition, the complex forms an open channel at its extracellular end, providing the conduit to evacuate the drugs carried by MexB that uses the proton motive force as a source of energy. This work opens new perspective for structural studies of other conformational states of the efflux system in "energized" conditions to fulfill our understanding of the efflux cycle mechanism. Moreover, the knowledge of this first tripartite native complex structure constitutes the first step towards the development of molecules capable of blocking the assembly of the complex for therapeutic uses. Indeed, such molecules would inhibit active efflux and restore the lost efficiency of current antibiotics.

La cryo-microscopie électronique est une technique tomographique permettant de reconstituer la structure 3D d’un objet complexe en biologie à partir d’un jeu d’acquisitions. Ces images de l’objet complexe sont appelées les projections et sont acquises sous orientations inconnues. Un des avantages de la cryo-microscopie électronique est l’obtention d’un modèle 3D de très haute résolution de l’objet dans un état naturel. La procédure de reconstruction comporte plusieurs étapes telles que l’alignement, la classification des projections, l’estimation de leurs orientations et le raffinement des projections. Lors de ces étapes, la distance entre deux projections est fréquemment mesurée. Le travail réalisé au cours de cette thèse s’organise autour de la recherche théorique d’une distance entre des projections non-orientées avec comme objectif l’amélioration de la procédure de reconstruction tomographique en cryo-microscopie électronique. La contribution de ce travail de thèse est une méthode permettant d’estimer la différence angulaire entre deux projections dans les cas 2D et 3D. Notre méthode est basée sur la construction d’un graphe de voisinage dont les sommets sont les projections, dont les arêtes relient des projections voisines et sont pondérées par une approximation locale de la différence angulaire. Le calcul de ces poids repose sur les propriétés des moments de projection. Notre méthode est testée sur des images simulées de différentes résolutions et de différents niveaux du bruit. La comparaison avec des autres méthodes d’estimation de la différence angulaire est aussi réalisée. / Cryo-electron microscopy is a tomographic technique allowing to reconstruct a 3D model of complex structure in biology from a set of acquired images. These images are known as the tomographic projections and are taken at unknown directions. The advantage of the cryo-electron microscopy is the 3D reconstruction at very high resolution. The reconstruction procedure consists of many steps such as projection alignment, projection classification, orientation estimation and projection refinement. During these steps, the distance between two projections is frequently measured. The work in this thesis aims at studying the distances mesured between two unknown-direction projections with the objective of improving the reconstruction result in the cryo-electron microscopy. The contribution of this thesis is the developement of a method for estimating the angular difference between two projections in 2D and 3D. Our method is based on the construction of a neighborhood graph whose vertices are the projections, whose edges link the projection neighbors and are weighted by a local approximation of the angular difference. The calculation of the weights relies on the projection moment properties. The proposed method has been tested on simulated images with different resolutions and at different noise levels. The comparison with others estimation methods of angular difference has been realised.

Macromolecular assemblies such as the ribosome, spliceosome, polymerases are imperative for cellular functions. The current understanding of these important machineries and many other assemblies at the molecular level is poor. The lack of structural data for many macromolecular assemblies further causes a bottleneck in understanding the cellular processes and the various disease manifestations. Hence, it is essential to characterize the structures and molecular architectures of these macromolecular assemblies. Though the number of 3-D structures for individual proteins structures or domains in the Protein Data Bank (PDB) is growing, the number of structures deposited for macromolecular assemblies is relatively poor. Hence, apart from the use of experimental techniques for characterizing macromolecular assembly structures, the use of computational techniques would help in supplementing the growth of macromolecular assembly structures. This thesis deals with the use of integrative approaches where computational methods are combined with experimental data to model and understand the mechanistic features of macromolecular assemblies with a special focus on a sub-complex of the spliceosome machinery. Chapter 1 of this thesis provides an introduction to protein-protein interactions and macromolecular assemblies. Further, the modelling of macromolecular assemblies using integrative methods are discussed, with a subsequent introduction to the spliceosome machinery. In chapter 2, modelling studies were performed on the proteins involved in the general amino acid control mechanism, which is triggered in yeast under amino acid starvation conditions. The proteins involved in the study were Gcn1, a ribosome binding protein and the RWD-domain containing proteins Gcn2, Yih1, Gir2 and Mtc5. From laboratory experiments it is known that in order for Gcn2 activation, an eIF2α kinase, its RWD-domain has to bind to Gcn1 and the residue Arg-2259 is important for this interaction. As the 3-D structure for the Gcn1 region containing Arg-2259 is not currently available, its 3-D structure was inferred using fold recognition and comparative modelling techniques. Further, in order to understand the Gcn2 RWD domain-Gcn1 molecular interaction, a complex structure was inferred by using a restrained protein-protein docking procedure. As the proteins, Yih1 and Gir2 are known to bind to Gcn1 using their RWD-domains, first the structures of the RWD-domain containing proteins including Mtc5 were inferred using a Gcn2 RWD domain NMR structure. Additionally, the Gcn1-Gcn2 complex was used to build a set of complexes to explain the binding of other RWD domain containing proteins Yih1, Gir2 and Mtc5. The important molecular interactions were obtained on analysing the interacting residues in these complexes. Thus, the Gcn1-Gcn2 interaction at the molecular level has been proposed for the first time. Future experiments guided by the protein-protein complex models and the proposed set of mutations should provide an understanding about the critical molecular interactions involved in the general amino acid control mechanism. Chapter 3 describes an integrative approach that was used to decipher a pseudo-atomic model of the closed form of human SF3b complex. SF3b is a multi-protein complex containing seven components – p14, SF3b49, SF3b155, SF3b145, SF3b130, SF3b14b and SF3b10. It recognizes the branch point adenosine in the pre-mRNA as part of U2 snRNP or U11/U12 di-snRNP in the spliceosome. Although, the cryo-EM map for human SF3b complex has been available for more than a decade, the structure and relative spatial arrangement of all components in the complex are not yet known. The integrative modelling approach used here involved utilizing structural data in the form of available X-ray and NMR structures, fold recognition and comparative modelling as well as currently available experimental datasets, along with the available cryo-EM density map to provide a model with high structural coverage. Hence, the molecular architecture of closed form human SF3b complex was derived that can now provide insights into the functioning of SF3b in splicing. This might also help the future high resolution structure determination efforts of the entire human spliceosome machinery In chapter 4, the molecular architecture of the closed form of SF3b complex obtained from the use of integrative modelling approach (Chapter 3) is extensively discussed. The structure-function relationships for some of the SF3b components based on the pseudo-atomic model has also been provided. In addition, the extreme flexibility associated with some of the SF3b components based on dynamics analysis has also been examined. Further, using an existing U11/U12 di-snRNP cryo-EM map and the closed form SF3b complex pseudo-atomic model, an open form of the SF3b complex was modelled and the component structures were fit into it. Hence, it was found that the transition between closed and open forms is primarily caused by a flap containing the HEAT repeat protein, SF3b155. This Protein is also known to harbour cancer causing mutations and has the potential to affect the Closed to open transition as well as SF3b complex structure and stability. Thus, this provides a framework for the future understanding of the closed to open transition in SF3b functioning within the spliceosome. Chapter 5 builds upon the integrative modelling approach (Chapter 3) that proposed the molecular architecture of the closed form of human SF3b complex and an open form of SF3b that was derived due to a flap opening of the closed form and which might help in accommodating RNA and other trans-acting factors within the U11/U12 di-snRNP (Chapter 4). In the current chapter, the SF3b open form and its interaction with the RNA elements is studied. The 5' end of U12 snRNA and its interaction with pre-mRNA in branch point duplex was modelled guided by the open form of SF3b that provided the necessary structural constraints and the RNA model is topologically consistent with the existing biochemical data. Further, utilizing the SF3b opens form-RNA model and the existing experimental knowledge, an extensive discussion has been provided on how the architecture of SF3b acts as a scaffold for U12 snRNA: pre-mRNA branch point duplex formation as well as its potential implications for branch point adenosine recognition fidelity. Moreover, the reasons for SF3b to be defined as a “fuzzy” complex - a complex with highly flexible folded regions along with intrinsically disordered regions is also discussed. Hence, the current work adds to the excellent developments made previously and deepens the understanding of the structure-function relationship of the human SF3b complex in the context of the spliceosome machinery. In chapter 6, a methodology has been proposed for the use of evolutionary conservation of protein-protein interfacial residues in multiple protein cryo-EM density based fitting of the protein components in the low-resolution density maps of multi-protein assemblies. First, the methodology was tested on a dataset of simulated density maps generated at four different resolutions -10, 15, 20 and 25 Å. On utilizing the evolutionary conservation scores obtained from multiple sequence alignments to score the fitted complexes, it was found that there was a decrease in the conservation scores when compared to that of the crystal structures, which were used to generate the simulated density maps. Further, the assessment of the multiple protein density fitting technique to align the actual protein-protein interface residues correctly using a performance metric called F-measure showed there was a decrease in performance as the resolutions became poorer. Hence, based on evolutionary conservations scores as well as F-measure the decrease in conservation scores or performance was found to be mainly due to the errors associated with the fitting process. Subsequently, a refinement methodology was designed involving the use of conservation scores, which improved the accuracy of the fitted models and the same, was observed in an experimental cryo-EM density test case of RyR1-FKBP12 complex. Hence, the conservation information acts as an effective filter to distinguish the incorrectly fitted structures and improves the accuracy of the fitting of the protein structures in the density maps. Thus, one can incorporate the conserved surface residues information in the current density fitting tools to reduce ambiguity and improve the accuracy of the macromolecular assembly structures determined using cryo-EM. In the concluding chapter 7, the learnings on the structural and mechanistic features of protein assemblies obtained from the use of computational techniques and integration of experimental datasets is discussed. In chapter 2, the modelling of a binary macromolecular complex such as the Gcn1-Gcn2 complex was performed using computational structure prediction strategies to understand the molecular basis of its interaction. Due to the potential inaccuracies which can exist in computational modelling, the chapters 3 to 5 dealt with the use of integrative approaches, primarily guided by the cryo-EM map, in order to decipher the molecular architecture of the human SF3b complex in the closed and open forms as well as its contribution for branch point adenosine recognition. Based on the extensive experience gained in modelling of assemblies using cryo-EM data in the previous chapters, a new method has been proposed on the use of evolutionary conservation information to improve the accuracy of cryo-EM density based fitting. Hence, these studies have provided strategies for modelling macromolecular assemblies as well as a deeper understanding of its mechanistic features.

<p>Two species of <i>Neisseria</i>, <i>N. meningitidis</i> and <i>N. gonorrhoeae</i>, are obligate human pathogens that cause meningitis and gonorrhea, respectively. Although generally asymptomatic, <i>N. meningitidis</i> can cause invasive meningococcal disease with high mortality rate. Due to emerging antibiotic resistance strains of <i>N. gonorrhoeae</i>, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) have designated it as an urgent threat to public health. Therefore, immediate interventions are required for fight against these Neisserial pathogens. Iron is an essential nutrient for all bacteria, including <i>Neisseria</i>. However, free iron is scarce in human, therefore, <i>Neisseria</i> have evolved to acquire iron from host proteins. These iron acquisition systems are immunogenic and important for infection and are promising therapeutic targets.</p> <p> In the host, lactoferrin sequesters free iron and limits iron availability to pathogens. However, <i>Neisseria</i> have evolved machinery to hijack iron directly from lactoferrin itself. Lactoferrin binding proteins, LbpA and LbpB, are outer membrane proteins that together orchestrate the acquisition of iron from lactoferrin. Additionally, LbpB serves an additional role in providing protection against host cationic antimicrobial peptides and innate immune response. Despite studies aimed at deciphering the roles of LbpA and LbpB, the molecular mechanisms underpinning iron acquisition and immune protection remain unknown. Here, we investigated the role of the lactoferrin binding proteins in iron acquisition and protection against cationic antimicrobial peptides. We obtained three-dimensional structures of <i>Neisseria</i> LbpA and LbpB in complex with lactoferrin using cryo-electron microscopy and X-ray crystallography. These structures show that both LbpA and LbpB bind to C-lobe of lactoferrin, albeit at distinct sites. Structural analyses show that while lactoferrin maintains its iron-bound closed conformation in the LbpB-lactoferrin complex, it undergoes a large conformational change from an iron-bound closed to an iron-free open conformation upon binding to LbpA. This observation suggest that LbpA alone can trigger the extraction of iron from lactoferrin. Our studies also provide an explanation for LbpB’s preference towards holo-lactoferrin over apo-lactoferrin and LbpA’s inability to distinguish between holo- and apo-lactoferrin. Furthermore, using mutagenesis and binding studies, we show that anionic loops in the C-lobe of LbpB contribute to binding the cationic antimicrobial peptide lactoferricin. Solution scattering studies of the LbpB-lactoferricin complex showed that LbpB undergoes a small conformational change upon peptide binding.</p> Together, our studies provide structural insights into the role of the lactoferrin binding proteins in iron acquisition and evasion of the host immune defenses. Moreover, this work lays the foundation for structure-based design of therapeutics against <i>Neisseria</i> targeting the lactoferrin binding proteins.

Zobrazovanie pomocou kryo-elektrónovej mikroskopie má svoje nezastúpiteľné miesto v analýze viacerých biologických štruktúr. Lokalizácia buniek kultivovaných na mriežke a ich segmentácia voči pozadiu alebo kontaminácii je základom. Spolu s vývojom viacerých metód hlbokého učenia sa podstatne zvýšila úspešnosť úloh sémantickej segmentácie. V tejto práci vyvinieme hlbokú konvolučnú neurónovú sieť pre úlohu sémantickej segmentácie buniek kultivovaných na mriežke. Dátový súbor pre túto prácu bol vytvorený pomocou dual-beam kryo-elektónového mikroskopu vyvinutého spoločnosťou Thermo Fisher Scientific Brno.

Pentameriska ligandstyrda jonkanaler (pLGICs) är avgörande för omvandlingen av kemisk till elektrisk signalöverföring i djurs nervsystem. Dysfunktion i dessa kanaler har visat sig vara kopplad till flera sjukdomar inklusive epilepsi, schizofreni, Alzheimers och autism, vilket gör dem till en måltavla för en mängd olika läkemedel. Att studera eukaryota kanaler är dock mycket utmanande, så upptäckten av prokaryota homologer, som är mycket lättare att studera, har därmed bidragit mycket till förståelsen för struktur och funktion hos proteiner i denna familj. I detta projekt producerades och renades en prokaryotisk pLGIC kallad DeCLIC från Escherichia coli. Strukturell bestämning av kanalen genomfördes med användning av kryo-elektronmikroskopi vid lågt pH och i närvaro av kalcium. En elektrontäthet med 3.4 Å upplösning uppnåddes och jämfördes med tidigare bestämda strukturer vid olika förhållanden i ett försök att bestämma hur proteinets struktur moduleras av kalcium och pH. Resultaten visar flera skillnader i kanalens konformation i närvaro och frånvaro av kalcium såväl som vid olika pH-värden. Dessutom antyder analys av den bestämda elektrontätheten ett möjligt intermediärt tillstånd vid lågt pH i närvaro av kalcium. / Pentameric ligand-gated ion channels (pLGICs) are crucial for the conversion of chemical to electrical signaling in the nervous system of mammals. Dysfunction in these channels has been found to be connected to several diseases including epilepsy, schizophrenia, Alzheimer’s, and autism, making them the target of a wide variety of therapeutic agents. However, studying eukaryotic channels is challenging so the discovery of prokaryotic homologs that are much easier to study has thus greatly helped in the understanding of the structure and function in this family of proteins. In this project, a prokaryotic pLGIC called DeCLIC was produced and purified from Escherichia coli. Structural determination of the channel was pursued using cryo-electron microscopy at a low pH and in the presence of calcium. An electron density at 3.4 Å resolution was achieved and compared to previously determined structures at different conditions in an attempt to determine the structural modulation of calcium and pH. Results show multiple differences in channel conformation in the presence and absence of calcium as well as in different pH conditions. Furthermore, analysis of the determined electron density suggests a possible intermediate state at low pH in the presence of calcium.

Nous avons utilisé la méthode de CEMOVIS (Cryo-Electron Microscopy Of Vitreous Sections) pour étudier l’ultrastructure des cellules HT29 (lignée cancéreuse colique humaine) et plus particulièrement l’organisation de la chromatine au sein du noyau. Pour améliorer la méthode, nous avons développé un micromanipulateur qui facilite la collecte des coupes et leur transfert sur la grille. Nous avons également cherché à préparer de nouveaux films métalliques (en remplacement du carbone) permettant une meilleure adhésion des coupes sur le support Au vu des premiers tests réalisés, les films de TiO2 que nous avons fabriqués au laboratoire et caractérisés par microscopie électronique (HR, spectroscopie et cartographie EELS) semblent offrir des perspectives intéressantes que nous attribuons à leur propriétés de conducteur électrique à basse température (ce qui reste à démontrer). Les organites cellulaires (noyaux, réseaux de filaments du cytosquelette, systèmes multilamellaires) ont été identifiés in situ. Les conditions d’imagerie choisies nous ont permis d’obtenir une résolution permettant d’identifier les deux feuillets des bicouches membranaires. Dans le noyau, nous avons observé des motifs striés, distants de 2.7 à 3.5 nm que nous attribuons à la molécule d’ADN enroulée autour du cœur d’histones. Comparées aux images de phases denses de nucléosomes, ces images suggèrent que les nucléosomes (jamais identifiés in situ jusqu’à présent) présentent un ordre très local au sein de la chromatine, que nous discutons à la lumières des modèles polymériques actuels. / The ultrastructure of HT29 cells (human epithelial adenocarcinoma cell line) was studied by CEMOVIS (Cryo-Electron Microscopy of Vitreous Sections) with a special emphasis on chromatin organization in the cell nucleus. We proposed methodological improvements for this technique:- We first developed a grid holding micromanipulator to facilitate both cryosections collect and deposition on carbon-coated TEM grids.- We also developed new metallic thin films (to replace carbon-base supports) to enhance the adhesion of cryosections on their support. The TiO2 thin films that we produced and analysed by electron microscopy (high resolution imaging, EELS and chemical mapping) seem to be an interesting alternative to carbon films for the deposition of cryosections. Their adhesive properties could be due to Titanium high electric conductance at low temperature (although this relation has not been clearly demonstrated yet).In HT 29 cells, we indentified cell organites (nucleus; cytoskeleton filament bundles, multilamellar bodies) in situ. Selected imaging conditions provide for a high enough resolution to visualise the two membrane leaflets. In the cell nucleus, we observed striated patterns separated from 2.7 to 3.5 nm that we assume to be DNA molecule turns wrapped around the histone protein core. Compared with the dense phases formed in vitro by nucleosome core particle in solution, our images suggest that nucleosomes are locally ordered in chromatin. This observation is discussed regarding the chromatin polymeric models.

No description available.

Cryo-electron microscopy (cryo-EM) has been established as the leading imaging technique for structural studies from small proteins to whole cells at a molecular level. The great advances in cryo-EM have led to the ability to provide unique insights into a wide variety of biological processes in a close to native, hydrated state at near-atomic resolutions. The developments of computational approaches have significantly contributed to the exciting achievements of cryo-EM. This dissertation emphasizes new approaches to address image processing problems in cryo-EM, including tilt series alignment evaluation, simultaneous determination of sample thickness, tilt, and electron mean free path based on Beer-Lambert law, Model-Based Iterative Reconstruction (MBIR) on tomographic data, minimization of objective lens astigmatism in instrument alignment and defocus and magnification dependent astigmatism of TEM images. The final goal of these methodological developments is to improve the 3D reconstruction of cryo-EM and visualize more detailed characterization.