Τα πυρρολοκαρβαζολικά ανάλογα του ινδολοκαρβαζολικού αρωματικού σκελετού φυσικών προϊόντων είναι μία νέα τάξη ενώσεων που εξετάζονται ως πιθανά αντικαρκινικά φάρμακα. Διακρίνονται σε αναστολείς πρωτεϊνικών κινασών και σε παράγοντες που δρουν στη DNA τοποϊσομεράση Ι ή ΙΙ και βλάπτουν το DNA, ανάλογα με το μηχανισμό δράσης τους και τη δομή τους. Μελετώντας την επίδραση επτά πυρρολο[2,3-α]καρβαζολικών αναλόγων στην ενεργότητα της κυκλινο-εξαρτώμενης κινάσης 1 (cyclin dependent kinase 1, CDK1) βρήκαμε ότι μόνο ένα από τα ανάλογα (1e) ανέστειλε πλήρως και με δοσο-εξαρτώμενο τρόπο το ένζυμο, ενώ όλα αναστέλλουν μερικώς ή πλήρως την ενεργότητα της τοποϊσομεράσης Ι in vitro. Στηn παρούσα εργασία μελετήθηκε η επίδραση των ίδιων αναλόγων στον πολλαπλασιασμό και μετανάστευση των ενδοθηλιακών κυττάρων in vitro και στην αγγειογένεση in vivo, στο μοντέλο της χοριοαλλαντοϊκής μεμβράνης εμβρύου όρνιθας. Διαπιστώθηκε ότι όλα τα ανάλογα αναστέλλουν τον πολλαπλασιασμό και τη μετανάστευση των ενδοθηλιακών κυττάρων in vitro, καθώς και την αγγειογένεση in vivo, αλλά διαφέρουν ως προς την αποτελεσματικότητα ή την ισχύ. Από προηγούμενες μελέτες της ερευνητικής μας ομάδας είναι γνωστό ότι ο αυξητικός παράγοντας πλειοτροπίνη (PTN) επάγει τη μετανάστευση ενδοθηλιακών κυττάρων in vitrο, δρώντας μέσω του υποδοχέα της με δράση φωσφατάσης τυροσίνης RPTPβ/ζ και της ιντεγκρίνης ανβ3. Με δεδομένο ότι στη βιβλιογραφία η CDK1 έχει αναφερθεί να συμμετέχει στην επαγόμενη από ενεργοποίηση της ανβ3 μετανάστευση ενδοθηλιακών κυττάρων, μελετήσαμε την επίδραση των πυρρολο[2,3-α]καρβαζολικών αναλόγων στην επαγόμενη από ΡΤΝ κυτταρική μετανάστευση. Μόνο το ανάλογο 1e ανέστειλε τη δράση της ΡΤΝ, τόσο στα ενδοθηλιακά, όσο και στα ανθρώπινα κύτταρα γλοιοβλαστώματος U87MG, τα οποία εκφράζουν RPTPβ/ζ και ιντεγκρίνη ανβ3 και μεταναστεύουν ως ανταπόκριση στη διέγερση με ΡΤΝ. Ίδια δράση είχε και η ροσκοβιτίνη, γνωστός αναστολέας των CDK1/2 και CDK5 και στα δύο είδη κυττάρων, ενώ ο εκλεκτικός μόνο για CDK1/2 αναστολέας NU2058 δεν είχε καμία δράση στην επαγόμενη από ΡΤΝ κυτταρική μετανάστευση. Τα αποτελέσματά μας υποδεικνύουν ότι η επαγόμενη από ΡΤΝ μετανάστευση ανθρώπινων ενδοθηλιακών κυττάρων δεν εξαρτάται από τις κινάσες CDK1 και CDK2, αλλά από την κινάση CDK5, δεδομένο που επιβεβαιώθηκε με μείωση της έκφρασης της CDK5 με την τεχνική του siRNA. Η ΡΤΝ δρα επαγωγικά στην ενεργότητα της CDK5, με μέγιστη δράση 5 λεπτά μετά την επίδραση της ΡΤΝ. Σε αυτήν την ενεργοποίηση συμμετέχει και ο υποδοχέας της ΡΤΝ RPTPβ/ζ, αλλά όχι η ιντεγκρίνη ανβ3. Από παλιότερες μελέτες μας είναι δεδομένο πως η πρόσδεση της ΡΤΝ στον υποδοχέα της RPTPβ/ζ οδηγεί σε ενεργοποίηση της κινάσης c-SRC, η οποία απαιτείται για την επαγόμενη από ΡΤΝ κυτταρική μετανάστευση. Για πρώτη φορά αναφέρουμε την αλληλεπίδραση της c-SRC με την CDK5 σε εκχυλίσματα ενδοθηλιακών κυττάρων, καθώς και το ότι η επαγόμενη από ΡΤΝ ενεργοποίηση της κινάσης CDK5 επιτυγχάνεται μέσω ενεργοποίησης της κινάσης c-SRC. Τέλος, η κινάση CDK5 δεν εμπλέκεται στην ενεργοποίηση της ιντεγκρίνης ανβ3 και των ERK1/2 από την ΡΤΝ. Συμπερασματικά, η κυκλινο-εξαρτώμενη κινάση 5 (CDK5) φαίνεται να επηρεάζει σημαντικά λειτουργίες των ενδοθηλιακών κυττάρων που σχετίζονται με αγγειογένεση και τα αποτελέσματά μας προσφέρουν σημαντικά δεδομένα προς αυτήν την κατεύθυνση. Eίναι η πρώτη φορά που περιγράφεται η έκφραση του βασικού ρυθμιστή της CDK5 p35 σε άλλο είδος κυττάρων, εκτός των νευρικών, και ιδιαίτερα στα ενδοθηλιακά. Ο εξέχων ρόλος της κινάσης CDK5 σε διάφορες λειτουργίες και σε παθολογικές καταστάσεις, αρχικά στο νευρικό και στη συνέχεια στα περισσότερα συστήματα, καθιστά ιδιαίτερα σημαντικό το σχεδιασμό και την ανάπτυξη αναλόγων που επιδρούν στην ενεργότητά της άμεσα ή έμμεσα, με βάση τη δομή του αναλόγου 1e. / Indolocarbazole alkaloids constitute a group of natural products that have attracted great attention because of their potential therapeutic applications. Ιndolopyrrolocarbazoles are a new class of antitumor drugs, which can be divided into two major groups, depending on their mechanisms of action and structural features: protein kinase inhibitors and DNA-damaging agents. We have previously evaluated the effect of 7 pyrrolo[2,3-a]carbazole analogues on CDK1/cyclinB (Cyclin Dependent Kinase 1, CDK1) activity and found that only compound1e totally inhibited the enzyme in a dose-dependent manner, while all analogues partially or totally inhibited the activity of topoisomerase I in vitro, with compound 1e being the least effective. In this thesis, the effect of all the pyrrolo[2,3-a]carbazole analogues on angiogenesis was investigated, using the in vivo model of the chick embryo chorioallantoic membrane, as well as proliferation and migration of human endothelial cells in vitro. All the analogues had an effect on the proliferation and migration of endothelial cells in vitro and angiogenesis in vivo, but with differences in their effectiveness or potency. We have previously shown that PTN induces migration of endothelial cells through binding to its receptor protein tyrosine phosphatase β/ζ (RPTPβ/ζ) and ανβ3 integrin. The recent report that ανβ3 expression up-regulates CDK1, which then modulates cell migration, led us to test the effect of the CDK1 inhibitor compound 1e and the other pyrrolo[2,3a]carbazole analogues on the PTN induced migration of human endothelial cells. Only compound 1e inhibited PTN induced migration of human endothelial cells, a result also confirmed in human glioblastoma U87MG cells, which are known to express both RPTPβ/ζ and ανβ3 and migrate in response to PTN. Roscovitine, a synthetic inhibitor of CDKs with selectivity towards CDK1/2 and CDK5, completely attenuated PTN-induced migration of endothelial cells, while the CDK1/2 selective inhibitor NU2058 had no effect, suggesting that inhibition of CDK5 is responsible for inhibition of PTN-induced cell migration. The complete attenuation of PTN-induced migration of endothelial cells following the down-regulation of CDK5 by siRNA further confirmed that CDK5 plays an important role in PTN-induced migration of endothelial cells. PTN increased CDK5 kinase activity with the maximum increase observed within 5 min after stimulation of cells with PTN. This was confirmed by both direct kinase assays, as well as by measuring interaction of CDK5 with its activator protein p35. PTN-induced activation of CDK5 is independent of ανβ3, but depends on RPTPβ/ζ and its downstream activated c-SRC kinase. This is the first time that an interaction between CDK5 and c-SRC is reported in extracts of endothelial cells, as well as the fact that PTN induced CDK5 activation requires c-SRC activation in these cells. Finally, we report no immediate effect of kinase CDK5 on PTN induced activation of ανβ3 integrin and ERK1/2 phosphorylation. Accumulating data favour the notion that CDK5 plays an important role in angiogenesis-related functions of endothelial cells and our data reinforce this observation. The expression of p35 in endothelial cells, the prime regulator of CDK5, is reported here for the first time in other type of cells apart from neuronal. The basic role of CDK5 in several pathologies point out the importance of research and development of compounds that can be effective in inhibiting this kinase, based on the structure of analogue 1e.

Πολλές παθήσεις του καρδιαγγειακού συστήματος σχετίζονται με την λειτουργία του ενζύμου της διαλυτής γουανυλικής κυκλάσης (soluble guanylate cyclase, sGC). Η sGC εμπλέκεται στο μονοπάτι ΝΟ-sGC-cGMP το οποίο ενεργοποιείται από το βιολογικά διαθέσιμο μονοξείδιο του αζώτου (nitric oxide, ΝΟ). Πολλές παθολογικές καταστάσεις αντιμετωπίστηκαν για πάνω από 140 χρόνια με τη χρήση φαρμάκων που παρέχουν NO (ΝΟ-φάρμακα), χωρίς ωστόσο να είναι γνωστός ο μηχανισμός δράσης τους. Αν και τα φάρμακα αυτά συνεισέφεραν στη βελτίωση των παθολογικών καταστάσεων, ωστόσο παρουσίαζαν σημαντικά μειονεκτήματα. Για την αντιμετώπιση αυτών, το ενδιαφέρον στράφηκε στον σχεδιασμό και την σύνθεση ενώσεων των οποίων η δράση θα ήταν ανεξάρτητη από το ΝΟ. Μεταξύ αυτών, τα παράγωγα BAY 58-2667 και η HMR 1766 αποδείχθηκαν ενεργοποιητές της sGC. Στα πλαίσια της παρούσας μελέτης, σχεδιάσθηκαν και συντέθηκαν έξι νέα βενζοφουρανικά ανάλογα του HMR-1766, σε μία προσπάθεια ανακάλυψης νέων ενώσεων, ενεργοποιητών της sGC με ενισχυμένη δραστικότητα και εκλεκτικότητα δράσης. Η προσέγγιση που ακολουθήθηκε για την σύνθεση των τελικών προϊόντων περιελάμβανε την ανοικοδόμηση του βενζοφουρανικού δακτυλίου από υποκατεστημένα παράγωγα σαλικυλικού οξέος και την μετέπειτα σύζευξη αυτού με κατάλληλους δομικούς λίθους για τον σχηματισμό μίας σουλφοναμιδικής και μίας αμιδικής πλευρικής αλυσίδας. Στα πλαίσια της μελέτης, διερευνήθηκαν και βελτιστοποιήθηκαν όλα τα συνθετικά στάδια για την παραλαβή των ενδιάμεσων και των τελικών προϊόντων. Η μελλοντική αποτίμηση της βιολογικής δράσης των νέων ενώσεων αναμένεται να διευκρινίσει αν οι ενώσεις αυτές είναι ικανές να δράσουν ως ενεργοποιητές της sGC, αλλά και αν μπορούν να αποτελέσουν χρήσιμα χημικά εργαλεία για την διευκρίνιση δομικών πληροφοριών του ενζύμου. Το δεύτερο τμήμα της παρούσας εργασίας, αφορά στον σχεδιασμό και την σύνθεση νέων αναλόγων του φυσικού προιόντος Hymenialdesine (HMD). Η HMD είναι ένα φυσικό προϊόν το οποίο έχει αποδειχθεί αναστολέας πολλών πρωτεϊνικών κινασών, όπως των κυκλινο-εξαρτώμενων κινασών (CDKs), η υπερλειτουργία των CDKs ενέχεται στην εμφάνιση παθολογικών καταστάσεων (καρκίνος, νευροεκφυλιστικές παθήσεις, διαβήτης). Στόχος της μελέτης ήταν ο σχεδιασμός και η διερεύνηση της σύνθεσης νέων σπειρανικών ινδολοαζεπινικών αναλόγων της HMD, με ενισχυμένη ανασταλτική και εκλεκτική δράση έναντι των CDKs. Για το σκοπό αυτό, μελετήθηκε η μετατροπή της 5-κετονομάδας της αζεπινο[3,4-b]ινδολο-1,5-διόνης σε ένα αμινο-υποκατεστημένο στερεογονικό κέντρο μέσω νουκλεόφιλης προσβολής της πρόδρομης χειρόμορφης t-βουτυλοσουλφινυλ-ιμίνης. Διερευνήθηκαν ποικίλες πειραματικές συνθήκες για τη βελτιστοποίηση σχηματισμού τόσο της ενδιάμεσης σουλφινυλ-ιμίνης, όσο και της υποκατάστασης αυτής. Τα συνθετικά αυτά στάδια θεωρούνται κρίσιμα και η βελτιστοποίηση τους απαραίτητη για την ομαλή εξέλιξη του συνθετικού σχήματος. Τα αποτελέσματα που καταγράφηκαν στα πλαίσια της μελέτης αναμένεται να συμβάλλουν ουσιαστικά στην επιτυχή ολοκλήρωση της σύνθεσης των νέων σπειρανικών αναλόγων της HMD. / Many cardiovascular diseases are connected with the activity of soluble guanylate cyclase (sGC). sGC is part of the NO-sGC-cGMP pathway, which is activated by the biologically available nitric oxide (NO). Many drugs that release NO (NO-drugs) have been used for more than 140 years. Although these drugs have contributed to the treatment of these diseases, they have presented some disadvantages. Thus, new compounds have been discovered whose activity is independent of NO. Compounds BAY 58-2667 and HMR-1766 belong to this new class of compounds and are characterized as sGC activators. In the first part of this study, six new benzofuran derivatives of HMR-1766 were designed and synthesized, aiming at the discovery of new compounds, activators of sGC with enhanced activity and selectivity against sGC. The synthetic approach involves the initial formation of benzofuran ring from substituted derivatives of salicylic acid and its coupling with selected building blocks. The optimazation of all synthetic steps for the synthesis of the intermediate and final products was also part of this study. The biological evaluation of the new compounds is expected to reveal their biological activity as sGC activators and/or their role as chemical tools for the structural elucidation of the enzyme. The second part of this study, concerns the design and synthesis of new derivatives of Hymenialdesine (HMD). HMD is a natural product with inhibitory activity against many protein kinases, such as cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs). Hypeactivation of CDKs is implicated in pathological disorders such as cancer, neurodegenerative diseases and diabetes. The aim of the study was the synthesis of new spiro-indolazepino derivatives of HMD with potential enhanced inhibitory activity and selectivity against CDKs. The transformation of the 5-ketogroup of the azepino[3,4-b]indol-1,5-dione to a new amino-substituted stereogenic center by nucleophilic attack of the intermediate chiral tert-sulfinylimine was the key-step of the synthetic approach. The results of this study are expected to contribute substantially to the synthesis of new spiro HMD derivatives.

Protein phosphorylation by members of the cyclin-dependent kinase (CDK) family determines the cell cycle and regulates gene transcription. CDK12 and CDK16 are relatively poorly characterised family members containing atypical domain extensions and represent novel targets for structural studies, as well as cancer drug discovery. In this thesis, I developed protocols to express and purify the human CDK12 kinase domain in complex with its obligate partner, CycK. I solved three distinct crystal structures of the complex providing insights into the structural mechanisms determining CycK assembly and kinase activation. These structures revealed a C-terminal kinase extension that folded flexibly across the active site of CDK12 to potentially gate the binding of the substrate ATP. My structures also identified Cys1039 in the C-terminal extension as the binding site for the first selective covalent inhibitor of CDK12, which has enormous potential as a pharmacological probe to investigate the functions of CDK12 in the DNA damage response and cancer. I also identified rebastinib and dabrafenib as potent, clinically-relevant inhibitors of CDK16 and solved a co-crystal structure that defined the extended type II binding mode of rebastinib. Preliminary trials using these relatively non-selective compounds to inhibit CDK16 in melanoma and medulloblastoma cancer cell lines revealed rebastinib as the more efficacious drug causing loss of cell proliferation in the 1-2 micromolar range. Use of the co-crystal structure to design more selective derivatives would be advantageous to further explore the specific role of CDK16. Finally, I identified a D-type viral cyclin from Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus that could bind to the CDK16 kinase domain and interfere with its functional complex with human CycY causing loss of CDK16 activity. These studies provide novel insights into the structural and regulatory mechanisms of two underexplored CDK family subgroups and establish new opportunities for cancer drug development.

Chez la femme, le cancer du sein est le cancer le plus fréquemment diagnostiqué. Différents traitements sont disponibles selon le sous-type tumoral. Cependant, certaines patientes sont réfractaires à ces thérapies et restent vulnérables lors de récidives. Le cancer a longtemps été défini par une division aberrante des cellules, mais aujourd'hui, il est évident que la résistance à la mort cellulaire programmée est un paramètre majeur dans l'étiologie de la maladie.Les cyclines de type D régulent le cycle cellulaire en permettant la transition de la phase G1 à la phase S. Pour cela, elles activent les kinases dépendantes des cyclines 4/6 (CDK4/6) qui phosphorylent les protéines du rétinoblastome ce qui libère le facteur de transcription E2F. La Cycline D1 (CycD1) nucléaire est donc centrale dans le contrôle du cycle. Son gène est amplifié dans les cancers humains et la moitié des patientes atteintes d'un cancer du sein ont une surexpression de CycD1. Par l’activation de CDK4, CycD1 est essentielle à l'apparition et à la progression tumorale. Ainsi, des inhibiteurs spécifiques de CDK4/6 ont été développés contre le cancer du sein. Malheureusement, certaines patientes restent insensibles à ce traitement. À ce titre, le ciblage spécifique de CycD1 pourrait représenter une alternative clinique. En effet, en plus de la régulation du cycle, CycD1 est également impliquée, indépendamment de CDK4, dans la survie des cellules cancéreuses. Cependant, aucun mécanisme de l'impact de CycD1 dans le maintien tumoral n'a été établi pour démontrer ce potentiel thérapeutique. En outre, CycD1 a été décrite dans les organes à l’âge adulte pour réguler le métabolisme du glucose et l'hématopoïèse. Par conséquent, pour éviter tout effet secondaire indésirable, nous avons décidé d’évaluer l’implication potentielle de CycD1 dans les organes adultes. Grâce au Tandem-HTRF, basé sur le transfert d'énergie entre deux anticorps, nous avons révélé la dynamique inattendue de CycD1 dans chaque organe adulte. De plus, nous avons montré que l’altération de l'expression de CycD1 conduit à une diminution des capacités de survie des cellules saines post-mitotiques.Au vu de ces limitations, nous avons développé une nouvelle approche d'ARN interférence spécifique des cellules cancéreuses appelée TAG-RNAi. Cette technologie permet de cibler CycD1 uniquement dans la tumeur afin d'épargner les cellules saines. Cette approche innovante consiste à cibler un tag présent uniquement sur l’ARNm de CycD1 des cellules cancéreuses. Ainsi, nous avons découvert que le ciblage spécifique de CycD1 induit une régression rapide et spontanée des tumeurs dépendantes des oncogènes RAS ou ERBB2. Par protéomique in vivo, j'ai découvert que lors de stress pro-apoptotiques, CycD1 cytoplasmique interagit avec la procaspase-3 et bloque son activation pour empêcher l'apoptose des cellules. Ces travaux démontrent la valeur clinique du ciblage spécifique de CycD1 dans les cancers afin d'améliorer l'efficacité des chimiothérapies.Par conséquent, il restait à déterminer comment appliquer le TAG-RNAi contre CycD1 uniquement dans les cellules cancéreuses des patientes. Puisque le tag exotique présent sur le gène Ccnd1 chez la souris nous a permis de cibler spécifiquement les cellules cancéreuses, nous avons pensé que des mutations retrouvées dans les cancers humains représentaient une option de ciblage. Ainsi, nous avons étendu le concept TAG-RNAi aux mutations somatiques caractéristiques des cancers pour cibler avec succès l'expression des mutants KRAS-G12V ou BRAF-V600E comme exemples. L'idée est donc d'identifier les mutations de Ccnd1 chez les patientes afin d'appliquer le TAG-RNAi comme une thérapie personnalisée afin d’éviter les effets secondaires. Enfin, l'expression de CycD1 représente un nouveau biomarqueur pour le cancer et les troubles liés à l'âge: de faibles taux prédisposent aux maladies dégénératives tandis que des taux élevés indiquent une susceptibilité accrue au cancer. / Breast cancer is the most frequently diagnosed cancer in women. This cancer is the leading cause of death in women aged from 35 to 65 years old. Different treatments are now available depending on tumor subtypes. However, some patients are still refractory to these therapies and are at risk of disease relapse. Cancer research has long focused on aberrant cancer cell division but today it is evident that the resistance to programmed cell death is also a major characteristic of the disease.D-type cyclins regulate cell cycle by allowing the transition from the G1-phase to the S-phase. These regulatory subunits activate the Cyclin-Dependent Kinases 4/6 (CDK4/6) that phosphorylate the retinoblastoma proteins which then release the E2F transcription factors. Nuclear Cyclin D1 (CycD1) is therefore central in the control of division. The Ccnd1 gene is amplified in human cancers and half of breast cancer patients bare an overexpression of CycD1. CycD1 is required for mammary carcinoma onset and progression in a CDK4 kinase-dependent manner. Hence, specific CDK4/6 inhibitors have been developed and authorized in the clinics against breast cancer. Unfortunately, some patients remain insensitive to this treatment. In this frame, the specific targeting of CycD1 could represent a strategic alternative in clinics to overcome these pitfalls. Indeed, in addition to cell cycle regulation with CDK4, CycD1 is also involved in CDK4-independent features of cancer cells like cell survival. However, to date, no clear mechanism for the impact of CycD1 in tumor maintenance is established to demonstrate the therapeutic value of its targeting.Moreover, recent studies have demonstrated the participation of CycD1 in adult organs to regulate glucose metabolism and hematopoiesis. As a consequence, to avoid any undesirable side effects, we decided to gauge the potential CycD1 implication in post-mitotic organs body-wide. We set up a new hypersensitive technology named Tandem-HTRF based on the energy transfer between two antibodies to reveal the unexpected dynamics of CycD1 expression in adult organ. Then, we discovered that alterations of CycD1 expression induced dramatic functional consequences on the survival capacities of healthy adult post-mitotic cells.Based on these limitations, we developed a novel RNAi approach specific to cancer cells named TAG-RNAi. This technology allows the silencing of CycD1 in cancer cells only to spare healthy cells. This innovative approach consists in the targeting of a mRNA tag only present on CycD1 from cancer cells. Using this technique, we found that the specific silencing of CycD1 induces a rapid and spontaneous regression of tumors driven by the RAS or ERBB2 oncogenes. Then, thanks to a proteomics screening in vivo, I discovered that under pro-apoptotic stresses the cytoplasmic CycD1 interacts with the procaspase-3 protein and blocks its activation to prevent cancer cell apoptosis. Altogether, my work demonstrates the clinical value of the specific targeting of CycD1 in cancers to increase the efficacy of chemotherapeutic treatments.Hence, it remained to be determined how to apply in patients RNAi against CycD1 only in cancer cells. Because the exotic tagging of its gene was instrumental in mice cancer models, we reasoned that human cancer mutations could represent such a specific tag. We have extended the concept of TAG-RNAi to somatic mutations characteristic of human cancers to successfully target the expression of KRAS-G12V or BRAF-V600E mutants as examples. The idea is therefore to identify Ccnd1 mutations in cancer patients in order to apply TAG-RNAi as a custom therapeutic approach that will manage side effects. More unanticipated, CycD1 expression represents a new biomarker for both cancer and age-related disorders: low CycD1 levels predispose to degenerative complications while high CycD1 levels indicate increased susceptibility to cancer and resistance to treatment.

La cycline A2 est un régulateur essentiel du cycle cellulaire qui, en association avec des kinases dépendantes des cyclines (CDK) régule la réplication de l'ADN et l’entré des cellules en mitose. Dans de nombreux types de cancers humains, la cycline A2 a été considérée comme un facteur de prolifération contribuant à la cancérogenèse de par ses fonctions dans la régulation du cycle cellulaire. Récemment, la complexité des fonctions de cycline A2 a été révélée. Certaines études in vitro ont démontré que l'inactivation de la cycline A2 induit une augmentation de la motilité cellulaire et de l'invasion dans les fibroblastes consécutive à une activation défective de RhoA. De plus, il a été montré que l'inactivation de la cycline A2 induit la EMT par l’intermédiaire d’une augmentation de l'activité transcriptionnelle de la β-caténine, mais aussi via la voie TGFβ/Prefoldin. Ces études suggèrent que des niveaux réduits de cycline A2 sont liés à une invasion accrue et à l’apparition de métastases dans certains types de cancer. A l’aide d’un modèle de souris mutante pour la cycline A2, une étude récente a établi une fonction de cette dernière, indépendante des CDK, dans la réparation des cassures double brin de l'ADN et a montré que la perte de la cycline A2 favorise l’apparition de cancers de la peau et du poumon. L’ensemble de ces études met en évidence l’existence de multiples fonctions pour la cycline A2. Mon travail de thèse a consisté à explorer le rôle de la cycline A2 dans l'homéostasie du colon et le développement du Le cancer colorectal.Pour évaluer la valeur pronostique de la cycline A2 dans le CCR, nous avons analysé l'expression de la cycline A2 par IHC sur un grand nombre d'échantillons tumoraux dérivés de patients atteints de CCR de différents stades. Nous avons trouvé que les niveaux élevés de la cycline A2 sont corrélés avec un mauvais pronostic et une survie plus faible chez les patients atteints de CCR de stade I et II. Cependant, une diminution de l'expression de la cycline A2 a été détectée aux stades III et IV par comparaison aux biopsies de CCR de stade I et II. Il est tentant de proposer que le profil d'expression de la cycline A2 reflète ses rôles distincts au cours de la cancérogenèse du côlon, comme la prolifération cellulaire au stade précoce, lorsqu'elle est fortement exprimée, mais favorise l'invasion et l'agressivité à des stades plus avancés, lorsque ses niveaux d’expression sont réduits.En complément de cette étude clinique, nous avons généré des modèles murins porteurs d’une mutation constitutive ou inductible de la cycline A2 dans l’épithélium intestinal. Nous avons montré que la déplétion de la cycline A2 dans l'épithélium intestinal de la souris provoque une rupture de la crypte colique, une inflammation, une augmentation de la prolifération des cellules épithéliales et l’apparition de dysplasies de bas et haut grade, reconnues comme lésions précancéreuses dans le CCR. Ces observations suggèrent un rôle majeur pour la cycline A2 dans la régulation de l'homéostasie du côlon et l'initiation de la tumorigénèse. Une analyse plus poussée a révélé une proportion accrue de lésions au niveau de l'ADN et une activation aberrante de la β-caténine, anomalies couramment détectées chez les patients humains atteints de CCR et considérées comme les premières altérations de cette pathologie. En outre, nous avons détecté une expression élevée de NFkB et YAP1 chez les souris mutantes pour la cycline A2, voies qui jouent un rôle critique dans la régénération tissulaire et peuvent conduire la dédifférenciation des cellules épithéliales du côlon contribuant ainsi à la tumorigenèse. Finalement, les souris mutantes cycline A2 ont été soumises à un protocole de colite associé au cancer et ont développé une proportion accrue d'inflammation, mais aussi de dysplasies et d'adénocarcinomes, en taille et en nombre, suggérant que la perte de la cycline A2 participe à la carcinogenèse colorectale chez la souris. / Cyclin A2 is an essential cell cycle regulator required for accurate DNA replication and mitotic entry in association with cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs). In multiple types of human cancers, cyclin A2 was considered as a proliferation driver contributing to carcinogenesis based on its function to promote cell cycle.Recently, the complexity of cyclin A2 functions has been revealed. Some in vitro studies demonstrated that cyclin A2 inactivation induces increased cell motility and invasiveness of mouse fibroblasts due to defective RhoA activation. Moreover, cyclin A2 inactivation has been shown to induce EMT through the upregulation of β-catenin transcriptional activity, but also via the TGFβ/Prefoldin pathway. These studies suggest that reduced levels of cyclin A2 are linked to increased invasiveness and metastasis in some cancer types. Using a cyclin A2 mutant mouse model, a recent study established the CDK-independent function of cyclin A2 in the repair of double-stranded DNA breaks and showed that loss of cyclin A2 promotes tumorigenesis in skin and lung due to deficient DSBs repair.Altogether, these studies highlight the multiple functions cyclin A2 can execute. The aim of my thesis was to explore the role of cyclin A2 in colon homeostasis and colorectal cancer development.To evaluate the prognostic value of cyclin A2 in CRC, we analyzed cyclin A2 expression by IHC on tumor samples derived from CRC patients of different stages. We found that high levels of cyclin A2 correlate with bad prognosis and lower survival in patients with stage I and II CRC. However, decreased cyclin A2 expression was detected in stage III and IV by comparison to stage I and II CRC biopsies. Complementary to the clinical study, we generated tissue-specific mutant mouse models bearing either a constitutive or inducible cyclin A2 deletion in the intestinal epithelium. We showed that depletion of cyclin A2 in mouse intestinal epithelium causes colonic crypt disruption, inflammation, increased proliferation of epithelial cells and occurrence of low- and high-grade dysplasia, recognized as precancerous lesions of CRC. These observations suggest a major role for cyclin A2 in the regulation of normal colon homeostasis and tumor initiation. Further analysis revealed an increased proportion of DNA damage and aberrant activation of β-catenin, commonly detected in human patients with CRC and which are considered as the first occurring alterations in this pathology. Furthermore, we detected elevated expression of NFkB and YAP1 in the colons of cyclin A2 mutant mice, pathways that have been previously shown to play critical roles for tissue regeneration after tissue damage and to drive dedifferentiation of colonic epithelial cells thus contributing to tumorigenesis. Finally, cyclin A2 mutant mice were subjected to a modified colitis-associated CRC model and developed increased proportion of inflammation, but also dysplasia and adenocarcinomas, in size and numbers, suggesting that loss of cyclin A2 contributes to inflammation-associated colorectal carcinogenesis in mice.

Diferentes modelos experimentais têm sido utilizados para estudar a ação trófica do ACTH na supra-renal, e as respostas a esses estímulos parecem ser importantes para proliferação e morte celular in vivo. Essa hipótese foi testada utilizando ratos hipofisectomisados ou tratados com dexametasona, e através da reação de IH avaliamos: 1-a incorporação de BrdU nas diferentes zonas do córtex adrenal estimuladas com ACTH, FGF2 ou N-POMC; 2-se a resposta mitogênica ocorre via receptor MC2R, utilizando um antagonista do ACTH; 3-o número de células do córtex adrenal que entra em apoptose, e se o ACTH recupera o número de células viáveis. Os resultados obtidos mostram que: 1-o ACTH apresenta ação mitogênica nas três zonas do córtex adrenal; 2-a resposta do ACTH ocorre via MC2R; 3-O FGF2 apresenta ação mitogênica apenas nas zonas internas do córtex adrenal; 4-o N-POMC apresenta ação mitogênica na zona glomerulosa; 5-A hipofisectomia induz apoptose nas três zonas do córtex e é prevenida pelo ACTH; 6-a modulação da ciclina E e a CDKIp27 pode estar envolvida na indução do ACTH. / Different experimental models have been used to study the trophic action of ACTH in adrenal, which seems to be important in proliferation and cell death in vivo. This hypothesis was tested using hypophysectomized or dexamethasone treated rats, and through IHC we evaluate: 1-the BrdU incorporation in different adrenal cortex zone after i.p. of ACTH, FGF2 or N-POMC, 2-if the mitogenic response occurs through the MC2R, using for it an antagonist of ACTH, 3-the number of adrenocortical cells which entered into apoptosis, and if ACTH recover this number. The results show that: 1-ACTH is mitogenic in three zone of adrenal cortex; 2-The mitogenic response of ACTH occurs through MC2R; 3-Mitogenic action of FGF2 occurs in the inner zones of adrenal cortex; 4- The N-terminal POMC peptide induces proliferation in the zone glomerulosa; 5- ACTH prevents apoptosis in the adrenal cortex resulting from the surgery, 6- The alteration of cyclin E and CDKI p27 could be a likely molecular mechanism of the effects induced by ACTH.

O efeito dos hormônios glicocorticóides (GC) de suprimir o crescimento celular é exercido através de cascatas celulares nas quais a transcrição de genes de resposta primária, mediada direta ou indiretamente pelo receptor de GC, regulam a transcrição e a atividade de um conjunto de genes, incluindo fatores importantes para a progressão no ciclo celular. Entretanto, a conexão funcional entre diversos dos genes ativados ou inibidos por GC e a inibição da proliferação de determinados tipos celulares ainda não é completamente conhecida. Nosso laboratório isolou a variante ST1, a partir da linhagem C6 de glioma de rato, utilizando-a como modelo de estudo do mecanismo de ação de GC como agentes anti-tumorais. O tratamento com GC confere, às células ST1, um crescimento totalmente dependente de soro e ancoragem, morfologia em cultura semelhante à de fibroblastos normais e incapacidade de gerar tumor em camundongos da linhagem \"nude\", caracterizando uma completa reversão fenotípica tanto in vitro como in vivo. Como abordagens para o entendimento do mecanismo molecular da ação de GCs, o laboratório vem buscando a clonagem de produtos gênicos diferencialmente expressos através do uso de técnicas que permitam a análise da abundância relativa dos mRNAs, e mais recentemente, empregando-se a análise da abundância relativa das proteínas através da eletroforese bidimensional (2D-PAGE). As seqüências isoladas por estas metodologias são alvos potenciais para uma posterior análise funcional. Os objetivos gerais deste trabalho foram: a) identificar genes que estão diferencialmente expressos durante a reversão fenotípica das células ST1 induzida por GC, através da análise proteômica (2D-PAGE e espectrometria de massas) e b) determinar a função de um dos genes (Ciclina G) identificado anteriormente no laboratório como sendo induzido durante o tratamento das células ST1 com GC. A metodologia empregada se baseou na comparação dos perfis 2D de proteínas nucleares das células ST1 tratadas ou não (controle) com GC por 5 e 24h. Após análise de imagem, 33 polipeptídios foram considerados como diferencialmente representados após 5h de tratamento, 16 dos quais foram também identificados após 24h de tratamento. Seis destes polipeptídios foram identificados através da análise dos seus perfis de digestão tríptica (PMF). Evidências obtidas por ensaios de Western blot sugerem que um destes polipeptídeos, a Anexina 2 (ANX2), possui a sua localização sub-celular modulada pela ação de GC nas células ST1. A análise do papel da Ciclina G na reversão fenotípica tumoral-normal das células ST1 induzida por GC, foi feita através da sua super-expressão nestas células, utilizando um sistema retroviral, e avaliando-se os efeitos desta super-expressão sobre a resposta das células ST1 a GC, através de ensaios de curva de crescimento e citometria de fluxo. Os dados sugerem que a super-expressão da Ciclina G nas células ST1 intensifica e prolonga o efeito de GC nestas células. / The glucocorticoid (GC) growth suppression response is controlled through cellular cascades in which the transcription of primary response genes regulates the expression and activity of a diverse set of genes including important factors for cell cycle progression. However, the functional connection between the GC-regulated transcriptional events and cell cycle arrest of determined cells is poorly understood at the molecular level. In this context, our lab has isolated the ST1 variant of the C6 rat glioma cell line to study the mechanism of action of GC as anti-tumor agents. GC treatment leads ST1 cells to a dramatic tumoral to normal phenotypic reversion, characterized by inhibition of their growth rate in monolayer, loss of their ability to form colonies in semi-solid medium and to induce tumor formation in nude mice, and morphological changes (flattening). As part of the strategy to understand the anti-tumor action of GC, differentially represented proteins, associated with the phenotypic reversion displayed by ST1 cells have been isolated through mRNA-based blind cDNA cloning and, more recently, by two dimensional electrophoresis (2D-PAGE). The sequences isolated by these two methodologies are potential targets for functional analysis. In the present study, we aimed at a) identifying genes which are differentially expressed during the GC-induced phenotypic reversion of ST1 cells, using the proteomic approach (2D-PAGE and mass spectrometry) and b) determining the functional role of a gene (Cyclin G) which had previously being identified as being induced during GC-treatment of the ST1 cells. The analytical methodology used relied on the comparison of sets of 2D nuclear protein profiles of ST1 cells, maintained in the absence (control) and in the presence of GC for 5 and 24h. After image analysis and visual validation, 33 polypeptides were considered as differentially represented 5 h after treatment, 16 of which were also differentially represented after 24 h. Six of those polypeptides were identified by peptide mass fingerprinting (PMF). Evidence obtained by Western blot analysis indicates that one of those polypeptides, Annexin 2 (ANX2), has its sub-cellular location modulated by GC-treatment of ST1 cells. The role of Cyclin G in the tumoral to normal phenotypic reversion induced by GC in ST1 cells was analyzed by over-expression of Cyclin G using a retroviral system and evaluation of the effects of this over-expression over ST1 cells response to GC, by growth curve and flow cytometry assays. The data suggest that Cyclin G over-expression leads to a more intense and prolonged effect of GC on ST1 cells.

A resistência tubular renal tem sido estudada a fim de se ampliar a compreensão da fisiopatologia da Insuficiência renal aguda (IRA). A isquemia renal induz à resistência a um subseqüente insulto isquêmico sendo que os mecanismos de resistência parecem depender de alterações celulares. O p21 é um inibidor do ciclo celular, o qual pode ser induzido por radicais livres de oxigênio e parece ter um efeito protetor na IRA isquêmica. O objetivo deste estudo é avaliar o papel do p21 e do estresse oxidativo em modelo de resistência adquirida após episódio de IRA isquêmica, e em túbulos proximais isolados após isquemia. Ratos Wistar foram divididos em 3 grupos: grupo 1- sham, grupo 2- submetido a procedimento sham e após 2 dias submetido à isquemia de 45 min e grupo 3- submetido à isquemia de 45 min e após 2 dias submetido à segunda isquemia de 45 min. Os valores de uréia plasmática (114±60 vs. 136±44 mg/dL, n.s.), a creatinina sérica (0,86±0,2 vs. 0,98±0,1mg/dL, n.s.) e o clearance de creatinina (0,21±0,1vs. 0,24±0,1mL/min/100g, n.s.), avaliados 48 h após o segundo procedimento (Dia 4), foram semelhantes entre os grupos 2 e 3. O tempo de recuperação da IRA também foi semelhante entre os grupos 2 e 3. A histologia mostrou necrose tubular aguda aparentemente de grau semelhante entre os grupos 2 e 3. O infiltrado linfocitário foi semelhante entre os 3 grupos, entretanto houve aumento no infiltrado de macrófagos no grupo 3. Foi observado aumento na proliferação celular no grupo 2 e grupo 3, quando comparados ao grupo 1(125±28 cél./mm2, p<0,05), entretanto, a proliferação foi mais intensa no grupo 2 (1.262±440 cél /mm2) que no grupo 3 (653±300 cél /mm2, p<0,05 vs. group 2). O grau de apoptose encontrado foi semelhante entre o grupo 2 e o grupo 3. Houve aumento na expressão do p21 apenas no grupo 3 sendo que esta expressão foi semelhante nos grupos 1 e 2. Foi estudada também a resistência celular em túbulos proximais (TP) isolados de ratos normais (grupo Controle) e ratos submetidos à isquemia de 35 min, 24 h antes do estudo (grupo Isquemia). TP do grupo Isquemia foram susceptíveis à hipóxia, porém, resistentes à lesão de reoxigenação. Além disto, apresentaram menor produção de hidroperóxidos. Portanto, a resistência renal isquêmica aparentemente está associada a mecanismos celulares, o estresse oxidativo e o aumento na expressão do p21 são possíveis mediadores destes mecanismos. / Renal tubular resistance has been studied for the understanding of ischemic acute renal failure (ARF). Subsequent ischemic episodes may induce renal resistance whose mechanisms seem to be related to cell alterations. P21 is a cell cycle inhibitor that may be induced by oxygen free radicals and may have a protective effect in ischemic ARF. This study aimed at evaluating the role of oxidative stress and p21 on tubular resistance in isolated renal tubules and in a model of acquired resistance after renal ischemia. Wistar rats were divided into 3 groups: group 1 - sham; group 2 - submitted to sham procedure and after 2 days submitted to 45 min ischemia and group 3 - submitted to ischemia of 45 min followed by a second 45 min ischemia after 2 days. Plasma urea levels (114±60 vs. 136±44 mg/dL), serum creatinine (0.86±0.2 vs. 0.98±0.1mg/dL) and creatinine clearance (0.21±0.1vs. 0.24±0.1mL/min/100g.) evaluated at 48 hours after the second procedure were similar between groups 2 and 3 (all NS). ARF recovery time was also similar between groups 2 and 3. Histology disclosed the same degree of acute tubular necrosis between groups 2 and 3. Lymphocytes infiltrate was similar among all groups whereas macrophages infiltrate was greater in group 3. Enhanced cell proliferation was observed in groups 2 and 3 when compared with group 1 (125±28 cel/mm2, p<0.05), however it was greater in group 2 (1,262±440 cel/mm2) than group 3 (653±300 cel/mm2, p<0.05 vs. group 2). Degree of apoptosis was similar between groups 2 and 3. The p21 expression was increased only in group 3 whereas it was similar in groups 1 and 2. Cell resistance was also evaluated in isolated renal proximal tubules (PT) from control and ischemia groups. In the latter group, animals were submitted to 35 min ischemia and PT were isolated one day later. PT from the ischemia group were sensitive to hypoxia but resistant to reoxygenation injury which was followed by lower hydroperoxides production. In conclusion, renal resistance obtained by an ischemia was associated with cell mechanisms involving oxidative stress and increased p21 expression as mediators of this protection.

O melanoma é uma forma de câncer com alto índice de morte devido, em parte, à sua tendência de formar metástases. Esse tipo tumoral apresenta deleção de CDKN2A e amplificação de HDM2 em aproximadamente 50 % dos casos, mas apenas 10 % apresentam mutação em p53. Aproveitando-se do fato de a maioria dos casos de melanoma retêm p53 selvagem, uma proteína supressora tumoral e fator de transcrição, utilizamos vetores adenovirais nos quais a expressão dos transgenes é controlada pelo p53 endógeno. Estes vetores foram aperfeiçoados com a inclusão de uma modificação na proteína fibra que permite a eficiente transdução de um amplo espectro de células. Utilizando estes vetores, nosso laboratório mostrou que o tratamento combinado, mas não individual, de vetores virais codificando p19Arf e IFNbeta (interferon-beta) induziu elevados níveis de morte em células de melanoma de camundongo, B16F10. Assim, iniciamos novos estudos que têm como alvo explorar os mecanismos de morte celular e identificar genes críticos cuja expressão é alterada frente o tratamento combinado e que agem como mediadores da resposta celular para a estratégia de transferência gênica. Com este projeto, transferimos a combinação gênica (p19Arf + IFNbeta) para células B16F10 e analisamos o tipo de morte celular induzido. Assim, detectamos o aumento da presença de marcadores de morte celular conhecidos, tais como de apoptose (atividade de caspases e exposição de fosfatidilserina) e de necroptose (expressão de RIPK3 e TNFR1), e a diminuição de um marcador de autofagia (expressão de LC3-II). Além disso, mostramos que a detecção dos três marcadores clássicos de morte imunogênica (ATP, calreticulina e HMGB1) foi possível somente quando as células B16F10 foram tratadas com a combinacao de p19Arf + IFNbeta. Por fim, a avaliação do perfil de expressão gênica através de microarray de cDNA das células B16F10 tratadas com p19Arf + IFNbeta revelou expressão diferenciada de 1054 genes em comparação com células que receberam apenas somente um ou outro transgene. Em seguida, a expressão dos genes Nr3c1, RanBP9, Sin3A, Wdr46, FoxO1, Phlda3 e tp73 foi validada por qPCR e estudos funcionais foram iniciados para revelar a participação destes na resposta celular. Dessa forma, desvendamos importantes aspectos da resposta de células B16F10 frente ao tratamento com p19Arf e IFNbeta / Melanoma is a form of cancer with a high death rate due, in part, to its tendency to generate metastasis. These tumors carry deletion of CDKN2A and amplification of HDM2 in nearly 50 % of cases, but only 10 % have mutations in p53. Taking advantage of the fact that most melanoma cases retain wild type p53, a transcription factor and tumor suppressor protein, we used adenoviral vectors in which transgene expression is controlled by endogenous p53. These vectors were improved with a modification of the fiber protein that allows efficient transduction of a broad spectrum of cells. Using these vectors, our laboratory showed that the combined treatment with viral vectors encoding p19Arf and IFNbeta (interferon-beta) induced high levels of B16F10 (mouse melanoma) cell death, but not when treated with these vectors individually. Thus, we initiated studies to explore the mechanisms of cell death and to identify critical genes involved in the response of B16F10 cells to treatment with p19Arf + IFNbeta. Here, we transferred p19Arf + IFNbeta genes to B16F10 cells and analyzed the type of cell death induced. In this regard, we detected an increase of cell death markers, such as apoptosis (caspase activity and exposure of phosphatidylserine) and necroptosis (RIPK3 and TNFR1 expression) and a decrease of an autophagy marker (LC3-II expression). Furthermore, we showed that the detection of three classic immunogenic cell death markers (ATP, calreticulin and HMGB1) was possible only when B16F10 cells were treated with p19Arf + IFNbeta combination. Lastly, assessment of gene expression profile using cDNA microarray analysis of B16F10 cells treated with p19Arf + IFNbeta revealed differential expression of 1054 genes compared to cells that received only one of the transgenes. Expression of Nr3c1, RanBP9, Sin3a, Wdr46, FoxO1, Phlda3 and TP73 genes was validated by qPCR and functional studies were started to reveal participation of these genes in the cellular response. Thus, we exposed important aspects of the B16F10 cellular response to treatment with p19Arf and IFNbeta

T. gondii interfère avec l'activation des voies de signalisation de NF-kB des cellules hôtes. Ainsi, lors de l’infection par T. gondii, 85% des gènes dépendant de NF-kB sont up-régulés. Un autre facteur de transcription dont l’expression est modulée par le parasite est UHRF1 (Ubiquitin-like,containing PHD and RING finger domains, 1). UHRF1, en se fixant sur le promoteur du gène de la cycline b, induit une répression épigénétique de ce dernier conduisant à un arrêt du cycle cellulaire des cellules infectées en phase G2 et à un arrêt de la prolifération parasitaire. L’analyse in silico du promoteur du gène uhrf1 a montré qu’il possédait 9 sites de fixation de NF-kB. Effectivement nous avons démontré que NF-kB interagit avec le promoteur du gène uhrf1 lors d’une infection par T. gondii. L’expression d’UHRF1 serait donc modulée par NF-kB dans les cellules infectées par T. gondii. Or NF-kB a une régulation différentielle en fonction de la nature de la souche infectante. Là encore, nous avons pu observer une régulation différentielle d’UHRF1 selon la nature de la souche infectante, pouvant être dues à la régulation souche dépendante de NF-kB. La détermination du rôle précis de l’activation d’UHRF1 dans les cellules infectées et l’identification du ou des facteurs parasitaires responsables pourraient permettre de mieux comprendre les mécanismes de persistance intracellulaire du parasite et de découvrir de nouveaux points d’impact thérapeutiques. / T.gondii interferes with the activation of NF-kB signaling pathways. Thus, upon infection by T.gondii, 85% of genes NF-kB-dependent are up-regulated. Another transcription factor whose expression is modulated by the parasite is UHRF1 (Ubiquitin-like, Containing PHD and RINGfinger domains, 1). UHRF1, bind to the gene promoter of cyclin b and induces epigenetic repression of this gene leading to cell cycle arrest in G2 phase of infected cells and stop the proliferation in both infected cells and parasite. In silico analysis of the uhrf1 gene promoter has been shown to possess 9 binding sites of NF-kB. Our study showed that NF-kB actually interacts with the promoter of gene uhrf1 during infection with T. gondii. This suggests that the expression of UHRF1 is modulated by NF-kB in T. gondii-infected cells. In addition we observed differential regulation of UHRF1 depending on the nature of the infecting strain. These variations may also be due to already well-known differential regulation of NF-kB by different strains of T.gondii. Determining the precise role of UHRF1 activation in infected cells and the identification of the parasitic factor responsible of this activation would allow to a better understanding of the mechanisms of intracellular persistence of the parasite and allow to unravel new therapeutic trails.