In these recent years, the strengthening of masonry building has known a massive use of CFRP sheets. Those composite materials glued on the elements to reinforce are exposed to prematurely debonding crisis due to a tension load which is much smaller than the tensile strength of the CFRP. A way to upgrade failure load of CFRP-to-support bonded joint is to reinforce the cohesion between the fibers and the support by the use of mechanicals anchors built with the same fibers of the composite and fastened in the support like "nails". Research on the use of anchors for masonry supports has been limited and, in this framework, there are no experimental analyses related to the design and the placement of fiber anchors. The aim of this thesis is to provide experimental data to quantify the efficiency of the carbon fiber anchors applied on a reinforced fire brick. This is a ground work to study CFRP to masonry bonded joint fastened by fiber "nails". Specifically, the analysis of the displacement and the strain fields of the reinforced surface have been realized by means of Digital Image Correlation (DIC), an optical appealing method never used to study a FRP to support bonded joint fastened by FRP anchor. The research demonstrates that the use of the CFRP anchor increases the resistance and the ductility of the reinforcements. The latter are important to augment the mechanical features of the structural members and, especially, to increase the safety of people during earthquakes by avoiding the brittle collapse of the strengthened elements. The digital image correlation has been a good tool for the strain field analysis; strengths and weaknesses of this method have been evaluated

The current thesis focuses on the deformation behaviour and strain distribution in the microstructure of ductile iron during tensile loading. Utilizing Digital Image Correlation (DIC) and in-situ tensile test under optical microscope, a method was developed to measure high resolution strain in microstructural constitutes. In this method, a pit etching procedure was applied to generate a random speckle pattern for DIC measurement. The method was validated by benchmarking the measured properties with the material’s standard properties. Using DIC, strain maps in the microstructure of the ductile iron were measured, which showed a high level of heterogeneity even during elastic deformation. The early micro-cracks were initiated around graphite particles, where the highest amount of local strain was detected. Local strain at the onset of the micro-cracks were measured. It was observed that the micro-cracks were initiated above a threshold strain level, but with a large variation in the overall strain. A continuum Finite Element (FE) model containing a physical length scale was developed to predict strain on the microstructure of ductile iron. The materials parameters for this model were calculated by optimization, utilizing Ramberg-Osgood equation. For benchmarking, the predicted strain maps were compared to the strain maps measured by DIC, both qualitatively and quantitatively. The DIC and simulation strain maps conformed to a large extent resulting in the validation of the model in micro-scale level. Furthermore, the results obtained from the in-situ tensile test were compared to a FE-model which compromised cohesive elements to enable cracking. The stress-strain curve prediction of the FE simulation showed a good agreement with the stress-strain curve that was measured from the experiment. The cohesive model was able to accurately capture the main trends of microscale deformation such as localized elastic and plastic deformation and micro-crack initiation and propagation.

A multiple-sensor optical shape measurement system (SMS) based on the principle of white-light fringe projection has been developed and commercialised by Loughborough University and Phase Vision Ltd for over 10 years. The use of the temporal phase unwrapping technique allows precise and dense shape measurements of complex surfaces; and the photogrammetry-based calibration technique offers the ability to calibrate multiple sensors simultaneously in order to achieve 360° measurement coverage. Nevertheless, to enhance the applicability of the SMS in industrial environments, further developments are needed (i) to improve the calibration speed for quicker deployment, (ii) to broaden the application range from shape measurement to deformation field measurement, and (iii) to tackle practically-challenging surfaces of which specular components may disrupt the acquired data and result in spurious measurements. The calibration process typically requires manual positioning of an artefact (i.e., reference object) at many locations within the view of the sensors. This is not only timeconsuming but also complicated for an operator with average knowledge of metrology. This thesis introduces an automated artefact positioning system which enables automatic and optimised distribution of the artefacts, automatic prediction of their whereabouts to increase the artefact detection speed and robustness, and thereby greater overall calibration performance. This thesis also describes a novel technique that integrates the digital image correlation (DIC) technique into the present fringe projection SMS for the purpose of simultaneous shape and deformation field measurement. This combined technique offers three key advantages: (a) the ability to deal with geometrical discontinuities which are commonly present on mechanical surfaces and currently challenging to most deformation measurement methods, (b) the ability to measure 3D displacement fields with a basic single-camera single-projector SMS with no additional hardware components, and (c) the simple implementation on a multiple-sensor hardware platform to achieve complete coverage of large-scale and complex samples, with the resulting displacement fields automatically lying in a single global coordinate system. A displacement measurement accuracy of ≃ 1/12,000 of the measurement volume, which is comparable to that of an industry-standard DIC system, has been achieved. The applications of this novel technique to several structural tests of aircraft wing panels on-site at the research centre of Airbus UK in Filton are also presented. Mechanical components with shiny surface finish and complex geometry may introduce another challenge to present fringe projection techniques. In certain circumstances, multiple reflections of the projected fringes on an object surface may cause ambiguity in the phase estimation process and result in incorrect coordinate measurements. This thesis presents a new technique which adopts a Fourier domain ranging (FDR) method to correctly identifying multiple phase signals and enables unambiguous triangulation for a measured coordinate. Experiments of the new FDR technique on various types of surfaces have shown promising results as compared to the traditional phase unwrapping techniques.

Dans les dernières années, le renforcement des bâtiments en maçonnerie a connu une usure massive des bandes CFRP. Ces matériaux composites, attachés sur les éléments à renforcer, sont exposés à une fracture prématurée pour délaminage (...). Une façon pour accroître la résistance maximale du système renforcé par CFRP est d'améliorer la cohésion entre support et composite en utilisant des ancrages mécaniques. Ces derniers sont réalisés en utilisant les mêmes typologies de fibres de renforcement et en les insérant dans le support comme des «clous». Les recherches scientifiques sur l'usure de cette façon d'ancrage sur support en maçonnerie ont été très limitées et, dans ce contexte, il n'y a pas d'études expérimentales sur le projet et le placement des ancrages. L'objectif principal du présent travail de thèse est de quantifier l'efficacité des ancrages en fibre de carbone appliqués sur brique (...) par les bandes CFRP. Cette recherche est la première phase d'une étude plus vaste sur les systèmes de maçonnerie-CFRP renforcés par « carbon fiber anchor ». Dans l'étude, l'analyse des déplacements et des déformations de la surface renforcée a été faite en utilisant la Corrélation des Images (DIC), une avantageuse méthode optique jamais utilisée pour l'étude des systèmes «support-CFRP band- ancrages».Le présent travail de thèse démontre que les ancrages en CFRP augmentent le résistance maximale et la ductilité des renforcements par bande de composites. Donc, cette typologie d'ancrage augmente la sécurité des personnes pendant les tremblements de terre et ne permettent pas la fracture fragile de la structure renforcée. La corrélation des images a été un bon outil pour l'étude des déformations, des avantages et des inconvénients de cette méthode et ont été évalué pendant la recherche / In these recent years, the strengthening of masonry building has known a massive use of CFRP sheets. Those composite materials glued on the elements to reinforce are exposed to prematurely debonding crisis due to a tension load which is much smaller than the tensile strength of the CFRP. A way to upgrade failure load of CFRP-to-support bonded joint is to reinforce the cohesion between the fibers and the support by the use of mechanicals anchors built with the same fibers of the composite and fastened in the support like “nails”. Research on the use of anchors for masonry supports has been limited and, in this framework, there are no experimental analyses related to the design and the placement of fiber anchors. The aim of this thesis is to provide experimental data to quantify the efficiency of the carbon fiber anchors applied on a reinforced fire brick. This is a ground work to study CFRP to masonry bonded joint fastened by fiber “nails”. Specifically, the analysis of the displacement and the strain fields of the reinforced surface have been realized by means of Digital Image Correlation (DIC), an optical appealing method never used to study a FRP to support bonded joint fastened by FRP anchor. The research demonstrates that the use of the CFRP anchor increases the resistance and the ductility of the reinforcements. The latter are important to augment the mechanical features of the structural members and, especially, to increase the safety of people during earthquakes by avoiding the brittle collapse of the strengthened elements. The digital image correlation has been a good tool for the strain field analysis; strengths and weaknesses of this method have been evaluated

The use of plastic materials in the design of vehicle components is primarily driven by the need for vehicle weight and cost reduction. Additionally, these materials give design engineers freedom in creating appealing exterior designs. However, creating self-carrying exterior structures with polymers must fulfill long-term strength, creep and fatigue life requirements. Thus, the polymer polyDicyclopentadiene (pDCPD) has been chosen for this purpose. Its aging mechanics need to be understood by the design engineers to make the right decisions. This thesis has carried out mechanical tests such as uniaxial tensile testing, fatigue, and creep testing. Digital image correlation (DIC) system has been used to capture strain data from tensile tests. In the final analysis, DIC measurements proved more accurate than extensometer data retrieved from the testing machine. The rise in temperature has been captured using thermal imaging. Several degradation processes have been explored including physical aging, thermo-oxidation, photo-oxidation, chemical- and bio- degradations. Test results showed significant changes in mechanical properties after 17 years of aging. Additionally, severe thermal degradation has been observed in one of the tested panels of pDCPD. Temperature can rise to significant levels during cyclic loading at high stresses, which could have an impact on physical aging effects. Viscoelastic behavior has been explored and changes in dynamic and creep properties have been observed. The investigation also reviled that different defects caused by flawed manufacturing also can affect the material severely as one case has proved in this research.

Cette thèse a pour objectif le développement d'une stratégie d'identification des paramètres de plasticité et d'endommagement jusqu'à amorçage, pour des métaux ductiles.Un formalisme logarithmique est utilisé pour simuler les grandes déformations subies par les éprouvettes et une formulation non-locale multi-champ permet de simuler l'adoucissement indépendamment du maillage utilisé et d'éviter le verrouillage volumique.La Corrélation d'Images Digitales est utilisée pour obtenir des mesures hétérogènes plein champ à partir d'éprouvettes entaillées.La stratégie proposée s'appuie sur des observations microscopiques et sur une approche d'identification par recalage de modèle éléments finis (FEMU), visant à minimiser l'écart entre une mesure et son pendant simulé. L'écart est exprimé en termes de force et déplacement grâce à une normalisation appropriée. L'application de la FEMU est guidée par des analyses de sensibilité.La robustesse de la comparaison essai-calcul est assurée par l'application de conditions au bord mesurées. L'effet négatif de l’incertitude de mesure est mis en évidence et une solution de filtrage innovante est proposée.La stratégie est appliquée pour l'identification des paramètres de l'alliage Inconel625. Elle permet de reproduire l'amorçage pour des éprouvettes planes, en termes de réponse macroscopique et de localisation des sites d'amorçage. / This thesis proposes an identification strategy for plastic behaviour and damage up to the onset of fracture, for an application to ductile metals.A logarithmic finite strain formulation is used to simulate the large deformations undergone by the specimens, while a locking-free non-local formulation allows a mesh independent simulation of the softening behaviour.Digital Image Correlation is used to obtain heterogeneous full-field measurements from tensile tests on notched specimens.The identification strategy is based both on microscopic observations and on a Finite Element Model Updating (FEMU) technique, according to which the parameters are identified by minimizing the discrepancy between experiment and simulation. The discrepancy is quantified both in terms of displacement and force thanks to an appropriate normalization. The application of FEMU is guided using sensitivity analysis.The robustness of the comparison between simulation and measurement is ensured by prescribing measured displacements as boundary conditions for the simulation. The negative effect of the measurement uncertainty is underlined, and an innovative filtering approach is proposed.The proposed strategy is used to identify the materials' parameters of alloy Inconel625. It allows to reproduce the onset of fracture for flat specimens, both in terms of macroscopic response and crack initiation location.

L’introduction des matériaux composites à matrices thermoplastiques est étudiée depuis quelques années par les avionneurs. Les procédés actuellement investigués, soit par placement de mèches pré-imprégnées, soit par thermo-estampage de plaques préconsolidées, sont toutefois mal adaptés pour des pièces de forme complexe telles que des capotages, des volutes ou des entrées d’air. Pour s’affranchir de cette limitation, cette thèse vise à étudier une voie d’élaboration basée sur la mise en forme de textiles qui intègre par voie comélage/cotissage les renforts de carbone et les fils de thermoplastique. Le tout est suivi d’une consolidation en autoclave. Le projet de recherche comprend deux parties distinctes et complémentaires. La première partie est dédiée à l’étude de la mise en forme textile avant consolidation. La déformabilité en cisaillement des préformes textiles comélés a été caractérisée sur la base d’un essai « Bias Extension Test » instrumenté avec un dispositif optique pour mesurer les champs de déformation par corrélation d’images (2D-DIC). La mise en forme de la préforme textile sur des éprouvettes technologiques possédant une géométrie complexe de type double courbure a été effectuée à partir d’un pilote d’emboutissage. Une instrumentation optique a permis d’évaluer les champs de déformation en cisaillement (3D-DIC). La deuxième partie est consacrée à l’étude et à l’optimisation des conditions de consolidation en autoclave, des cycles de consolidation et l’étude de leur influence sur les performances mécaniques et la santé matière du matériau. Les relations matériau/procédé sont établies à partir de deux semi-produits FC/PPS : le Pipreg ® poudré de Porcher et le TPLF ® comélé avec fibres craquées de Schappe Techniques. Les résultats de ces deux thématiques ont permis la mise en oeuvre de pièces de faisabilité à double courbure aux propriétés microstructurales compatibles aux exigences aéronautiques pour des structures semi-structurelles. Une optimisation de la mesure de champ par stéréo- corrélation d’images et la prise en compte du comportement en tension et en flexion du renfort permettraient d’améliorer l’analyse des champs de déformation lors des essais de drapage. L’amélioration du cycle de consolidation et une sélection de produits d’environnement plus performants sont également des thématiques à explorer. / Thermoplastic resin composites have been studied for some years by aircraft manufacturer. Current processes studied concerning either prepreg bundle positioning or thermo-stamping of pre-consolidated laminates are not adapted for complex shape as air inlets. To overcome this limitation, this thesis investigates a method based on the manufacturing of fabrics made in commingled/co-woven yarns of carbon and thermoplastic fibres. Then fabrics are consolidated in autoclave. This research project has been divided into two distinct parts. The first part concerns textile shaping study before consolidation. Shear strains of textile preforms have been caracterized by « Bias Extension Test » instrumented with optical device to measure strain field by digital image correlation (2D-DIC ). Textile preform shaping on a double curvature technology test specimen was performed with stamping device. It was also intrumented by cameras to assess shear strain field (3D-DIC). The second part is focused on the study and the optimization of autoclave consolidation conditions and process parameters for thermoplastic composite part manufacturing. Process impacts on composite mechanical properties and microstructure are also studied. Material/process interactions assessment was performed with two CF/PPS semi-pregs : Pipreg ® powdered impregnated fabric from Porcher and TPLF ® commingled fabric with stretch-broken carbon fibers from Schappe Techniques. Results from these two research topics allow to manufacture double curvature composite parts with microstructural properties in accordance with aviation requirements for semi-structural parts. The optimisation of field measurements by 3D-DIC and the semi-preg characterisation in tensile and bending should be developed to improve strain field analysis during fabric shaping. Manufacturing process optimisation by the selection of more efficient materials used for vacumm bagging should also be investigated.

Esta tese contempla o desenvolvimento de uma prensa para conformação biaxial superplástica com sistema de controle in situ e real time de pressão e de temperatura, como também um módulo de monitoramento de deformação através da técnica de correlação digital de imagem. A referida prensa é capaz de atingir durante a conformação ótimas condições superplásticas através da instrumentação e do controle dedicado dos parâmetros que caracterizam o processo de conformação fluidoestática biaxial, pressão, temperatura e taxa de deformação. São seis os principais temas abordados e desenvolvidos nessa tese: (a) técnicas, métodos e requisitos da superplasticidade da liga de titânio Ti6Al4V; (b) concepção e construção da prensa que atenda aos requisitos do projeto; (c) instrumentação do ferramental; (d) implementação do sistema de controle; (e) definição e aplicação de metodologia de ensaio superplástico para conformação fluidoestática biaxial e (f) fabricação da peça modelo. A aplicação e desenvolvimento do sistema de controle em expansão fluidoestática biaxial envolve desde a escolha das condições de conformação, determinação do ciclo de pressão, implementação de controles dedicados que atendam aos requisitos de conformação até os métodos de determinação dos coeficientes de interesse (m, n e K). Com tal instrumentação é possível determinar os coeficientes a partir de ensaios biaxiais, ao invés de simplesmente utilizar os coeficientes de ensaios de tração uniaxiais. Realizou-se um ensaio superplástico fluidoestático biaxial de chapas de liga de Ti6AL4V controlado em torno de sua condição ótima. Em suma sobre o controle, o sistema de controle térmico minimiza o intervalo de tempo de estabilização da temperatura, sem sobressinal, reduzindo o tempo de exposição do material superplástico a altas temperaturas; o sistema de controle de pressão aplica um ciclo de pressurização que é responsável por realizar a conformação de forma que resulte em uma taxa de deformação específica que represente a condição de maior índice de sensibilidade a taxa de deformação, assim se caracteriza como ponto ótimo do processo. Os principais resultados são o Ferramental instrumentado e controlado para realização de conformação superplástica em atmosfera controlada e os sistemas de controle de temperatura, pressão e deformação, validados e testados de forma integrada em ensaios de conformação superplástica / This thesis contemplates the full development of a superplastic biaxial forming Press which contains an in situ and real time pressure and temperature control systems, as well as a deformation monitoring module that applies digital image correlation technique. The Press can achieve optimum superplastic forming conditions supported by dedicated instrumentation and control of the parameters that characterize the superplastic forming process; these parameters are pressure, temperature and strain rate. Six main topics are discussed: (a) techniques, methods and Ti6Al4V alloy superplastic requirements; (b) design and construction of the press that meets the project requirements; (c) Press instrumentation; (d) control system implementation; (e) definition and implementation of a new superplastic test methodology for bulge test and (f) a part model manufacturing. The application and development of the control system in biaxial forming process involves the selection of forming conditions, pressure cycle determination, implementation of dedicated controls that meet the forming requirements, besides methods for calculating important coefficients (m, n K). With the referred instrumentation, it is possible to determine these coefficients from biaxial tests, rather than simply using the uniaxial tensile tests coefficients. A Ti6Al4V alloy fluid static superplastic biaxial test was conducted, controlled around its optimum condition. Summarizing the control system, the thermal control system minimizes the stabilization temperature time, avoiding temperature overshooting, reducing the material time exposure at superplastic temperatures. The pressure control system applies a pressurization cycle, responsible for conducting the forming process, to achieve a specific strain rate. This represents the condition of maximum strain rate sensitivity, thus characterized as optimal process point. The main results are the instrumented and controlled superplastic biaxial forming Press efficient to conduct superplastic forming in a controlled atmosphere, and temperature, pressure and deformation control systems validated and tested in an integrated Superplastic forming tests.

La résistance au cisaillement des éléments en béton armé reste un sujet d'un grand intérêt pour l'ingénierie des structures civiles. En service, la plupart des éléments structuraux sont soumis à des sollicitations de cisaillement et/ou de poinçonnement avec un risque accru de rupture fragile. Différentes méthodes de calcul des résistances à l’effort tranchant existent, mais présentent des dispersions considérables notamment pour les éléments structuraux non armés transversalement. Ceci est dû principalement à la non-prise en compte de l’ensemble des mécanismes entrant dans le phénomène de cisaillement. L’objectif du présent travail de thèse est de contribuer à la compréhension des mécanismes de transfert de l’effort tranchant dans les poutres en béton armé. Pour cela, une campagne expérimentale est réalisée sur des poutres en béton armé sans armatures transversales et de différentes tailles afin d’étudier l’effet d’échelle sur l’effort tranchant. Le processus de fissuration marqué par la présence d’une fissure diagonale est analysé par deux techniques expérimentales : Corrélation d’images numériques et l’émission acoustique. Par la combinaison des résultats de la corrélation d'images et les jauges de déformations collées sur les armatures longitudinales, il est possible de distinguer la contribution du mécanisme d’engrènement des granulats et de l'action d’effet de goujon. L’influence de l’effet d’échelle sur chaque mécanisme de transfert est analysée par des modèles numériques et empiriques simplifiés en se basant sur les résultats expérimentaux à l’échelle locale. Les résultats confirment que l’engrènement des granulats joue un rôle décisif dans la contribution à la résistance de cisaillement pour les éléments en béton armé sans armatures transversales. Cette contribution dépend essentiellement des variables cinématiques(ouverture de fissure et glissement) et l’angle d’inclinaison de la fissure diagonale. Ce mécanisme est très dépendant de la taille de l’élément et de la forme de la fissure. / The shear strength of reinforced concrete elements remains a subject of great interest for the civil engineering structures. During service,most structural elements are subjected to shear and /or punching stresses with an increased risk of brittle failure. Different methods of calculation of shear strengths exist but have considerable discrepancy especially for the structural elements without transverse reinforcement. It is mainly by not taking into consideration all the mechanisms which are involved in the shear behavior. The objective of thisdoctoral thesis is to contribute towards the understanding of the shear force transfer mechanisms in reinforced concrete beams. For this,an experimental campaign is carried out on reinforced concrete beams without transverse reinforcement and of different geometrically similar sizes in order to investigate the size effect on the shear force. The cracking process manifested by thepresence of a diagonal crack is analyzed by two experimental techniques: Digital Image Correlation and Acoustic Emission. By combining the results of the digital image correlation and the strain gauges glued on the longitudinal reinforcement, it is possible to distinguish the contribution of the aggregate interlocking mechanism and the dowel action on the transfer of shear forces. The influence of size effect on each transfer mechanism is analysed by simplified numerical and empirical models based on experimental results at the local scale. The results confirm that the aggregate interlocking mechanism plays a critical role in the contribution to shear strength for reinforced concrete elements without transverse reinforcement. This contribution depends essentially on the kinematic variables (crack opening and sliding) and the angle of inclination of the diagonal crack. This mechanism is strongly dependent on the size of the element and the shape of the crack.

The Finite Element Method is a powerful and widespread tool for the structural analysis of flexible pipes and umbilicals. However, it is unfeasible to represent in detail all layers and components of a flexible pipe or umbilical cable in a Finite Element (FE) model, since the calculation time would be unrealistic. Moreover, consistent numerical analysis requires support from experimental results. In this context, this thesis presents numerical and experimental research options, as well as the development of new strategies for the design of FE models of flexible pipes and umbilicals. Using the commercial FE software ABAQUS, the text highlights the development of innovative techniques to represent helical layers, as well as the concept of a two-dimensional FE analysis, supported by analytical formulation. Complementing the numerical approaches, pioneer experimental techniques herein developed are presented, based on optical instrumentation through a Digital Image Correlation (DIC) system. An unconventional use of the DIC system enables the development of an experimental methodology to study umbilicals under crushing loads. / Na análise estrutural de tubos flexíveis e cabos umbilicais, o Método de Elementos Finitos se destaca como uma ferramenta poderosa e bastante difundida. Contudo, é inviável representar em modelos baseados em Elementos Finitos (EF) um tubo flexível ou um cabo umbilical com toda sua riqueza de detalhes, pois os tempos de cálculo seriam irreais. Além disso, análises numéricas consistentes precisam de respaldo de resultados experimentais. Neste contexto, esta tese apresenta linhas de pesquisa numérica e experimental. O desenvolvimento de novas estratégias para a concepção de modelos em EF de tubos flexíveis e cabos umbilicais é apresentado. Utilizando o software comercial ABAQUS, destacam-se técnicas inovadoras para representação das camadas helicoidais, bem como a obtenção de modelos EF bidimensionais, amparados por formulação analítica. Complementando as abordagens numéricas, técnicas pioneiras de análise experimental são apresentadas, baseando-se em instrumentação óptica com sistema de correlação digital de imagens. Utilizado de forma não convencional, o monitoramento óptico permite o desenvolvimento de metodologia experimental para estudo de cabos umbilicais sob carregamentos de crushing.