Cell proliferation plays an important role in multistage chemical carcinogenesis. Again, several reports demonstrated that upregulation of metallothionein (MT) expression is associated with increased cell proliferation that may contribute to the pathogenesis of preneoplastic phenotype to frank malignancy. In this study, we evaluated the roles of early DNA damage, altered expressions of liver MT and Ki-67 nuclear antigen, and altered hepatic levels of zinc (Zn) and copper (Cu) on cell proliferation and the progression of hepatocarcinogenesis through premalignant, late premalignant and malignant transformation phases in male Sprague-Dawley rats. We have further studied the association between MT expression and cell proliferation in hepatocarcinogenesis. There was substantial induction of DNA single-strand breaks (SSBs) (P < 0.001) and development of hepatocellular premalignant lesions along with significant decrease in hepatic levels of Zn and increase in Cu content following a single, necrogenic, intraperitoneal (i.p.) injection (200 mg/Kg body weight) of diethylnitrosamine (DEN) at week 4 of the experimental protocol. Moreover, DEN + phenobarbital (PB)-treatment significantly elevated MT-, Ki-67-, and BrdU-immunoexpressions along with their immunolabeling indices. Furthermore, positive correlations between MT- and Ki-67- labeling (P = 0.0006) at various time intervals, as well as, between MT immunoreactivity and 5'-bromo-2'-deoxyuridine-labeling index (BrdU-LI) (P = 0.0007) indicate that, MT expression might be associated with Ki-67 expression and cell proliferation thereby. The study suggests that DEN treatment may lead to alteration of Zn and Cu levels resulting in early DNA damage along with elevation of MT expression that may ultimately lead to hepatic cell proliferation. The results thus provide evidence in support of the role of MT as a potential positive regulator of cell growth during the early stages of hepatocellular transformation in rats.

Η αντικαρκινική ένωση δοξορουβικίνη χρησιμοποιείται ευρέως είτε μόνη της είτε σε συνδυασμό με άλλα αντικαρκινικά φάρμακα, στην αντιμετώπιση του καρκίνου του μαστού, των ωοθηκών, του πνεύμονα αλλά και σε περιπτώσεις οξείας λευχαιμίας και σαρκωμάτων. Σε προηγούμενη έρευνα που πραγματοποιήθηκε στο εργαστήριο μας, σε λεμφοκύτταρα ανθρώπου αλλά και στην κυτταρική σειρά ποντικού C2C12, βρέθηκε ότι επάγει το σχηματισμό μικροπυρήνων ως αποτέλεσμα κυρίως χρωμοσωματικής θραύσης. Στην παρούσα εργασία, διερευνήθηκε περαιτέρω η ικανότητα της δοξορουβικίνης να προκαλεί θραύση του γενετικού υλικού καθώς και η ικανότητά της να επάγει τη διαδικασία της απόπτωσης σε λευχαιμικά κύτταρα ανθρώπου HL-60. Η μελέτη του κερματισμού του DNA λόγω της δράσης της δοξορουβικίνης πραγματοποιήθηκε με τη μέθοδο ηλεκτροφόρησης μοναδιαίων κυττάρων σε πηκτή αγαρόζης (SCGE) κάτω από αλκαλικές συνθήκες. Εκτιμήθηκαν οι παράμετροι tail length, % DNA in tail, tail moment, και olive tail moment που αποκαλύπτουν θραύση του DNA. Επιπρόσθετα, η ικανότητα της δοξορουβικίνης να προκαλεί θραύση του γενετικού υλικού αναλύθηκε μέσω δημιουργίας κλάσεων με ελάχιστη έως μέγιστη βλάβη. O μηχανισμός με τον οποίο προκαλεί θραύση του DNA διερευνήθηκε με τη χρήση της μεθόδου ηλεκτροφόρησης μοναδιαίων κυττάρων σε πηκτή αγαρόζης κάτω από αλκαλικές συνθήκες σε συνδυασμό με τη χρήση των επιδιορθωτικών ενζύμων Fpg και hOOG1. Μετέπειτα, εξετάστηκε η ικανότητα της δοξορουβικίνης να επάγει την απόπτωση. Η μελέτη πραγματοποιήθηκε με τη μέθοδο αναστολής της κυτταροκίνησης (CBMN). Επίσης, με τη μέθοδο CBMN πραγματοποιήθηκε μελέτη του φαινομένου της χρωμοσωματικής θραύσης. Για την περαιτέρω διερεύνηση του μηχανισμού με τον οποίον η υπό εξέταση χημική ένωση επάγει τη διαδικασία της απόπτωσης, αναλύθηκε η ικανότητά της να τροποποιεί την έκφραση της κασπάσης-3, μιας πρωτεΐνης που παίζει σημαντικό ρόλο στον καταρράκτη των μοριακών γεγονότων που εμπλέκονται στην ενεργοποίηση του προγραμματισμένου κυτταρικού θανάτου. Για το σκοπό αυτό εφαρμόστηκε η μέθοδος ανοσοαποτύπωσης της παραπάνω πρωτεΐνης (Western blot). Με βάση τα ευρήματά μας, η δοξορουβικίνη παρουσιάζει θραυσματογόνο δράση, όπως φάνηκε από την αύξηση της εξόδου του DNA από τους πυρήνες των κυττάρων μετά από ηλεκτροφόρηση σε αλκαλικές συνθήκες. Η δημιουργία των ρηγμάτων είναι ισχυρότερη σε χαμηλές συγκεντρώσεις. Η ικανότητα της δοξορουβικίνης να προκαλεί θραύση του γενετικού υλικού σχετίζεται με την οξείδωση των βάσεων του DNA, η οποία έχει ως αποτέλεσμα τη δημιουργία ασταθών σε αλκαλικές συνθήκες θέσεων (alkali labile sites). Επίσης, προκαλεί οριακή αύξηση της συχνότητας των μικροπυρήνων στις χαμηλότερες συγκεντρώσεις που μελετήθηκαν, ενώ δε φαίνεται να επάγει τη δημιουργία των μικροπυρήνων στις υψηλότερες συγκεντρώσεις. Το εύρημα αυτό είναι σε συμφωνία με την ιδιότητά της να προκαλεί μεγαλύτερη συχνότητα ρηγμάτων του DNA στις μικρές συγκεντρώσεις. Επιπρόσθετα, επάγει τη διαδικασία της απόπτωσης. Η επαγωγή αυτή είναι ισχυρότερη σε υψηλές συγκεντρώσεις και δικαιολογεί τις μειωμένες συχνότητες ρηγμάτων και μικροπυρήνων στις συγκεντρώσεις αυτές. Η κασπάση 3 συμμετέχει στην επαγόμενη από τη δοξορουβικίνη απόπτωση όπως φάνηκε από την αύξηση της έκφρασης της κασπάσης 3, μετά από ανάλυση κατά western, σε κυτταρικές καλλιέργειες που αναπτύχθηκαν παρουσία δοξορουβικίνης. / The anticancer drug doxorubicin is widely used, either alone or in combination with other anticancer drugs, in the treatment of solid tumours of the breast, lung, ovary, as well as in acute leukemia and sarcomas. Previous research in our laboratory showed that doxorubicin is able to induce micronucleus generation, in human lymphocytes and mouse cell line C2C12, mainly due to chromosome breakage. In the present study we investigated the clastogenic activity of doxorubicin as well as its ability to induce apoptosis. Ηuman leukemic cells HL-60 were chosen as the cell system to proceed our research. The clastogenic activity of doxorubicin was investigated by alkaline Single Cell Gel Electrophoresis (SCGE assay-Comet assay). Four parameters were analyzed, tail length, % DNA in tail, tail moment, and olive tail moment, which reveal DNA breakage. Additionally the capacity of doxorubicin to induce DNA fragmentation was analyzed by stratifying the cells into five classes with various degrees of DNA damage, from undamaged DNA to severely damaged DNA. The mechanism by which doxorubicin exerts its clastogenic activity was studied by enzyme linked comet assay. We used Fpg and hOOG1 DNA glycosylases. The ability of doxorubicin to induce apoptosis was studied by Cytokinesis-block Micronucleus assay. Also, the CBMN assay was used to assess the micronucleation on HL-60 due to the action of doxorubicin. To further elucidate the mechanism by which doxorubicin induce apoptosis we examined the ability of this compound to alter the expression of caspase 3, that plays a key role in the cascade of molecular events of programmed cell death. This analysis was performed by Western blot. Our findings indicate that doxorubicin exerts clastogenic activity as it provokes DNA migration from the nucleus after SCG electrophoresis in alkaline conditions. The generation of breaks on DNA strands seems to be more potent at low concentrations. The ability of doxorubicin to induce fragmentation of genetic material is correlated with the oxidation of DNA bases resulting in the formation of alkali labile sites. Furthermore, it induces marginal increase in the frequency of micronuclei at lower concentrations, while it doesn’t seem to induce micronucleation at higher concentrations. This finding is in accordance with the ability of doxorubicin to generate higher frequency of DNA breaks at low concentrations. Additionally, doxorubicin induces apoptosis. This induction is more potent at higher concentrations and is consistent with the reduced frequency of breaks and micronucleus generation at these concentrations. Activation of apoptosis due to doxorubicin treatment seems to be mediated by caspase 3.

Im Rahmen dieser Arbeit wurde Organisation, Expression und Funktion des humanen Peroxisomal-Testis-Spezifisch-1(PXT1)-Gens untersucht. Die mRNA des humanen PXT1-Gens enthält nicht wie bisher bekannt zwei Exons, sondern fünf Exons. Die Expression von drei putativen Exons stromaufwärts konnte in dieser Arbeit bestätigt werden. Die Ergebnisse qualitativer und quantitativer Real Time-PCR zeigen, dass sich das Exon 1 aus drei unterschiedlich gespleißten Einheiten (Exons 1a, 1b und 1c) zusammensetzt. Das humane PXT1-Gen unterliegt dem alternativen Spleißen, wovon die Exons 1b, 1c, 2 und 4 betroffen sind, was Sequenzanalysen zeigen. Sechs Transkripte konnten insgesamt identifiziert werden. Die zusätzlichen Exons haben Auswirkungen auf die Proteinstruktur aufgrund der Verlängerung des ORF, kodierend für einst 51 Aminosäuren, auf 134. Im längeren Protein wird die BH3 interacting domain (BID) nachgewiesen, von der eine proapoptotische Funktion bekannt ist. Aufgrund des alternativ gespleißten Exon 4 und der daraus resultierenden Leserasterverschiebung existiert ein verkürztes Protein, in dessen mRNA sich ein vorzeitiges Stopkodon befindet. Die proapoptotische Domäne ist nicht mehr nachweisbar. In silico-Analysen zeigen, dass die Sequenzen der Exons 1a und 1b von PXT1 sich mit dem KCTD20-Gen überlappen, das für einen Kaliumkanal kodiert.  Im Unterschied zum murinen, testisspezifischen Pxt1-Gen, ist das humane Homolog trotz Prädominanz im Testis auch schwächer in anderen Geweben nachweisbar.  Zur weiteren Klärung der proapoptotischen Funktion von Pxt1 in Keimzellen wurde am Mausmodell (Pxt1-Knockout-Maus) die Anzahl an DNA-Strangbrüchen untersucht. Im Vergleich zu den Kontrolltieren (C57BL/6J) zeigt die Pxt1-Knockout-Maus eine signifikant erhöhte Anzahl an Spermien mit DNA-Strangbrüchen. Dieses Ergebnis bestätigt die Annahme, dass das PXT1/Pxt1-Gen eine Art Entsorgungsfunktion für beschädigte Spermien ausübt. Im zeitlichen Verlauf zeigte sich aber, dass die Spermien der Knockout-Tiere nicht sensibler als die Wildtyp-Tiere auf DNaseI reagieren.  Als mögliches Kandidatengen für Mutationsanalysen bei Männern mit Fertilitätsstörungen wurden 55 Patienten mit Fertilitätsstörungen (Azoo- oder Oligozoospermie) auf Punktmutationen im PXT1 untersucht. Eine Mutation konnte nicht identifiziert werden. Des Weiteren wurde die DNA der Patienten auf Copy Number Variations analysiert. Sowohl heterozygote als auch homozygote Duplikationen konnten im Exon1, bestätigt mithilfe der arraybasierten Comparativen Genomischen Hybridisierung (aCGH), vereinzelt auch in Exon2 und Exon3 nachgewiesen werden. Zusätzlich konnte bei einem Patienten eine Deletion nachgewiesen werden. Die bestätigte Duplikation im Exon 1 besitzt aber keinen Krankheitswert, da sie in einem Kontrollkollektiv eine Prävalenz von 41% in heterozygoter und 10% in homozygoter Form besitzt.

Cell fate decisions incorporate distinct and overlapping mechanisms. The activity of caspase 3 was initially understood to be a cell death restricted event, however numerous studies have implicated this enzyme in the regulation of both differentiation and proliferation. How the activity of caspase 3 promotes a non-death cell fate remains unclear. Here we examine the role caspase 3 activity plays during skeletal muscle differentiation; in particular we explore the hypothesis that the mechanism of inducing DNA strand breaks during cell death is also a key feature of differentiation, albeit with a distinctly different outcome. We delineate the transient formation of Caspase 3/Caspase activated DNase (CAD) dependent DNA strand breaks during differentiation. The formation of these breaks is essential for differentiation and the regulation of specific genes. In particular expression of the cell cycle inhibitor p21 is related to the formation of a DNA strand break within the gene’s promoter element. Further, we explored the genome wide association of CAD using Chromatin Immunoprecipitation coupled to high through put sequencing (ChIP-seq). This approach identified a potential role for Caspase3/CAD in regulating the expression of Pax7. Here, a CAD directed DNA strand break in the Pax7 gene is correlated with decreased Pax7 expression, an outcome that has been shown to be critical for progress of the myogenic differentiation program. The regulation of Pax7 expression through a CAD induced DNA strand break raises an intriguing connection between this regulation and oncogenic transformation observed in alveolar rhabdomyosarcoma. The putative site of CAD induced DNA strand breaks that promote decreased Pax7 expression during differentiation corresponds to site of chromosomal translocations responsible for Pax7 fusion events in alveolar rhabdomyosarcoma.

Cell fate decisions incorporate distinct and overlapping mechanisms. The activity of caspase 3 was initially understood to be a cell death restricted event, however numerous studies have implicated this enzyme in the regulation of both differentiation and proliferation. How the activity of caspase 3 promotes a non-death cell fate remains unclear. Here we examine the role caspase 3 activity plays during skeletal muscle differentiation; in particular we explore the hypothesis that the mechanism of inducing DNA strand breaks during cell death is also a key feature of differentiation, albeit with a distinctly different outcome. We delineate the transient formation of Caspase 3/Caspase activated DNase (CAD) dependent DNA strand breaks during differentiation. The formation of these breaks is essential for differentiation and the regulation of specific genes. In particular expression of the cell cycle inhibitor p21 is related to the formation of a DNA strand break within the gene’s promoter element. Further, we explored the genome wide association of CAD using Chromatin Immunoprecipitation coupled to high through put sequencing (ChIP-seq). This approach identified a potential role for Caspase3/CAD in regulating the expression of Pax7. Here, a CAD directed DNA strand break in the Pax7 gene is correlated with decreased Pax7 expression, an outcome that has been shown to be critical for progress of the myogenic differentiation program. The regulation of Pax7 expression through a CAD induced DNA strand break raises an intriguing connection between this regulation and oncogenic transformation observed in alveolar rhabdomyosarcoma. The putative site of CAD induced DNA strand breaks that promote decreased Pax7 expression during differentiation corresponds to site of chromosomal translocations responsible for Pax7 fusion events in alveolar rhabdomyosarcoma.

This review contains the results of EPR/ENDOR experiments on DNA constituents in the solid-state. Most of the results presented involve single crystals of the DNA bases, nucleosides and nucleotides. The emphasis is on low-temperature ENDOR results. Typical experiments involve irradiations at or near helium temperatures in attempts to determine the primary radiation induced oxidation and reduction products. The use of the ENDOR technique allows one to determine the protonation state of the initial products. Subsequent warming of the sample facilitates a study of the reactions that the primary products undergo. A summary of the results is provided to show the relevance the study of model compounds has in understanding the radiation chemistry of DNA.

Carcinogen-induced DNA base modification and subsequent DNA lesions are the critical events for the expression of premalignant phenotype of the cell. We have therefore investigated the chemopreventive efficacy of a vanadium salt against diethylnitrosamine (DEN)-induced early DNA and chromosomal damages in rat liver. Hepatocarcinogenesis was induced in male Sprague-Dawley rats with a single, necrogenic, intraperitoneal injection of DEN (200 mg/kg body weight). 8-Hydroxy-2′-deoxyguanosines (8-OHdGs), strand-breaks and DNA-protein crosslinks (DPCs) were measured by HPLC, comet assay and spectrofluorimetry, respectively. There was a significant and steady elevation of modified bases 8-OHdGs along with substantial increments of the extent of single-strand-breaks (SSBs), DPCs and chromosomal aberrations (CAs) following DEN exposure. Supplementation of vanadium as ammonium metavanadate (NH4VO3, +V oxidation state) at a dose of 0.5 ppm in terms of the salt weight throughout the experiment abated the formations of 8-OHdGs (P < 0.0001; 79.54%), tailed DNA (P < 0.05; 31.55%) and length:width of DNA mass (P < 0.02; 61.25%) in preneoplastic rat liver. Vanadium treatment also inhibited DPCs (P < 0.0001; 58.47%) and CAs (P < 0.001; 45.17%) studied at various time points. The results indicate that the anticlastogenic potential of vanadium in vivo might be due to the observed reductions in liver-specific 8-OHdGs, SSBs and/or DPCs by this trace metal. We conclude that, vanadium plays a significant role in limiting DEN-induced genotoxicity and clastogenicity during the early stages of hepatocarcinogenesis in rats.

Idarubicin (IDA) and mitomycin C (MC) are clinically effective quinone-containing anticancer agents used in the treatment of several human cancers. Quinone-containing anticancer drugs have the potential to undergo bioreduction by oxidoreductases to reactive species, and thereby exert their cytotoxic effects. In the present study, we investigated, for the first time, the potential of IDA, in comparison to MC, to undergo reductive activation by NADPH-cytochrome P450 reductase (P450R), NADH-cytochrome b5 reductase (b5R) and P450R-cytochrome P4502B4 (CYP2B4) system by performing both in vitro plasmid DNA damage experiments and enzyme assays. In addition, we examined the potential protective effects of some antioxidants against DNA-damaging effects of IDA and MC resulting from their reductive activation. To achieve these goals, we obtained P450R from sheep lung, beef liver and PB-treated rabbit liver microsomes, b5R from beef liver microsomes and CYP2B4 from PB-treated rabbit liver microsomes in highly purified forms. The plasmid DNA damage experiments demonstrated that P450R is capable of effectively reducing IDA to DNA-damaging species. The effective protections provided by antioxidant enzymes, SOD and catalase, as well as scavengers of hydroxyl radical, DMSO and thiourea, revealed that the mechanism of DNA damage by IDA involves the generation of ROS by redox cycling of IDA with P450R under aerobic conditions. The extent of DNA damages by both IDA and MC were found to increase with increasing concentrations of the drug or the enzyme as well as with increasing incubation time. IDA was found to have a greater ability to induce DNA damage at high drug concentrations than MC. The plasmid DNA experiments using b5R, on the other hand, showed that, unlike P450R, b5R was not able to reduce IDA to DNA-damaging reactive species. It was also found that in the presence of b5R and cofactor NADH, MC barely induced DNA strand breaks. All the purified P450Rs reduced IDA at about two-fold higher rate than that of MC as shown by the measurement of drug-induced cofactor consumption. This indicates that IDA may be a more potent cytotoxic drug than MC in terms of the generation of reactive metabolites. The results obtained from enzyme assays confirmed the finding obtained from plasmid DNA experiments that while MC is a very poor substrate for b5R, IDA is not a suitable substrate for this enzyme unlike P450R. The reconstitution experiments carried out under both aerobic and anaerobic conditions using various amounts of CYP2B4, P450R and lipid DLPC revealed that reconstituted CYP2B4 produced about 1.5-fold and 1.4-fold rate enhancements in IDA and MC reduction catalyzed by P450R alone, respectively. The present results also showed that among the tested dietary antioxidants, quercetin, rutin, naringenin, resveratrol and trolox, only quercetin was found to be highly potent in preventing DNA damage by IDA. These results may have some practical implications concerning the potential use of P450R as therapeutic agent on their own in cancer treatment strategies. Selective targeting of tumor cells with purified P450R by newly developed delivery systems such as using polymers, liposomes or antibodies may produce greater reductive activation of bioreductive drugs in tumor cells. Consequently, this strategy has a high potential to increase the efficacy and selectivity of cancer chemotherapy.

No description available.

The human genome is constantly under the attack by various damaging agents, leading to the breakage of one or both strands of DNA that might interfere with RNA processing. Importantly, our cells have evolved diverse mechanisms to rapidly repair various DNA lesions, highlighting the importance of genetic integrity. Defects in DNA repair and/or RNA metabolism can lead to a variety of human hereditary diseases, with pathologies including growth and developmental defects, immunodeficiency, predisposition to cancer, and neurodegeneration. Mutations in the BRAT1 (BRCA1-associated ATM activator-1) protein have been associated with neurological disorders characterized by heterogenous phenotypes with varying levels of clinical severity ranging from microcephaly, hypertonia, epilepsy, seizures, and early death in the first two years of life to mild cerebellar atrophy and ataxia. Previously, BRAT1 protein has been implicated in the cellular response to DNA double-strand breaks and ATM signalling. However, the exact mechanism/s by which mutations in BRAT1 gene trigger neurological disorders are largely unknown. Recently, we have identified a homozygous missense c.185T>A (p.Val62Glu) variant in BRAT1 that markedly reduced the level of BRAT1 protein in patient-derived cell lines. Surprisingly, our data show that...