ABSTRACT Assessing the impact of herbivory on plant growth and reproduction is important to predict the success of biocontrol of invasive plants. Leaf area production is most important, as photosynthesis provides the foundation for all plant growth and fitness. High levels of defoliation generally reduce the productivity of plants. However, leaf area production fluctuates during the season and compensational growth may occur, which both complicate accurate estimations of defoliation impacts. Under field conditions the interaction with neighbouring species and the availability of soil nutrients need to be assessed in order to gauge long term effects of weed invasions on natural environments. In this thesis I have investigated seasonal leaf area dynamics in Buddleia davidii following repeated artificial defoliation, to quantify compensational leaf production and to understand the regulatory mechanisms involved. The impact of defoliation on photosynthesis, seed production, germination and nitrogen translocation patterns were analysed. Finally, possible facilitation between B. davidii and a native nitrogen fixer, Coriaria arborea, and the impact of B. davidii on soil nutrient availability were investigated. In defoliated B. davidii, increased node production (34%), leaf size (35%) and leaf longevity (12%) resulted in 52% greater total emergent leaf area in the short term. However, with time and diminishing tissue resources the compensation declined. No upregulation of photosynthesis was observed in pre-existing leaves. Compensational leaf area production occurred at the expense of reproduction but the germination capacity of individual seeds was unaffected. In B. davidii, nitrogen reserves are stored in old leaves. Thus, the defoliation-induced decline in tissue reserves led to changes in the remobilisation pattern and increased the importance of soil uptake but biomass production especially that of roots had declined significantly (39%). Slight facilitation effects from the neighbouring nitrogen fixer and VA-mycorrhizae were observed on B. davidii in the field, while its impact on soil chemistry during spring was negligible. Defoliation of B. davidii resulted in priority allocation of resources to compensational leaf growth and a concomitant reduction in flower and seed production. The compensational leaf production greatly increased the demand for nitrogen, while continued leaf removal decreased the pool of stored nitrogen. This led to changes in nitrogen remobilisation and an increased importance of root uptake. However, the significant decline in root growth will likely impair adequate nutrient uptake from the soil, which is especially important where B. davidii invades nutrient poor habitats and will increase the success of biocontrol of the species. While mycorrhizae increase nutrient accessibility for B. davidii, it is likely that the additional stress of defoliation will negate the small facilitative effects from nitrogen-fixing species like C. arborea. This research provides new insights into the mechanisms regulating leaf area dynamics at the shoot level and systemic physiological responses to defoliation in plants, such as nitrogen translocation. The compensation in leaf area production was considerable but only transitory and thus, the opportunity to alleviate effects of leaf loss though adjustment of light capture limited. However, to ascertain that photosynthesis at whole plant level does not increase after defoliation, more detailed measurements especially on new grown leaves are necessary. In general, defoliation had greatly reduced plant growth and performance so that an optimistic outlook for controlling this species can be given. Conclusions about the wider impacts of B. davidii on soil chemistry and community function will require further research.

Annual rings of Douglas-fir, Pseudotsuga menziesii (Mirb.) Franco, which sustained 1 year of defoliation by the western false hemlock looper, Nepytia freemanii Munroe (Lepidoptera: Geometridae), showed a period of decrease in breast height ring width starting in the year that followed the damage. The magnitude of the decrease was related to the degree of defoliation: there was no ring width decrease on trees that were 0-10% defoliated; the decrease became progressively more noticeable in trees which sustained increasingly higher defoliation; and it was maximum in trees which sustained 91-100% defoliation. This period of reduction lasted 1 to 5 years and was followed by a period of above-normal growth which was related to defoliation in a similar manner: it was absent in trees 0-10% defoliated and maximum in the 91-100% tree defoliation class. Increase in defoliation caused a significant increase in index standard deviation, autocorrelation and mean sensitivity.

Cowpea (Vigna unguiculata L.) is an important legume, especially in the hot, dry tropics and subtropics of sub-Saharan Africa. It has been widely reported to be drought tolerant. Cowpea is a highly nutritious, multi-purpose crop, used as a leafy vegetable and grain legume with potential to contribute to food security in marginal areas. However, the crop is still classified as a neglected underutilised species; legume research focus has been mainly devoted to established legumes such as common bean and soybeans. There is a need to collect empirical information on cowpea which could be used to advise farmers on management strategies. This study evaluated cowpea responses to water stress under controlled and field conditions. Initially, two cowpea varieties (Brown and White birch) were evaluated for seed quality using the standard germination that was laid out in a completely randomised design and each variety was replicated for times. Electrolyte conductivity test was also performed under laboratory conditions. Thereafter, a pot trial was conducted to evaluate cowpea response to water stress imposed at different growth stages under varying growth temperatures. The pot trial comprised three factors: temperature [High (33/27ºC), Optimum (27/21ºC) and Low (21/15ºC)], water regimes (no stress, terminal stress, intermittent stress – vegetative and intermittent stress - flowering) and cowpea varieties. Lastly, a field trial was conducted to evaluate cowpea production as well as the effect of sequential leaf harvesting on yield under irrigated and rainfed conditions. The field trial was laid out as a split-plot design, with water regime (irrigation vs. rainfed) as main factors, cowpea varieties as sub-factor and sequential harvesting (no harvest, harvested once and harvested twice), replicated three times. All treatments were arranged in a randomised complete block design. Results of the initial study showed that germination capacity and vigour of cowpea varieties were significantly different (P < 0.001). White birch had higher electrolyte leakage than Brown birch. Pot trial results showed that cowpea growth (leaf area, leaf number and plant height) was vigorous in the high temperature regime compared with optimum and low temperature regimes. Chlorophyll content index was higher under high temperature relative to optimum and low temperature regimes, respectively. Under low and optimum temperature regimes, cowpea growth was stunted; cowpea failed to flower and form yield. Whereas, under high temperature regime, cowpea growth was vigorous hence flowered and formed yield. Vegetative growth was more sensitive to water stress than flowering stage. Terminal stress and stress imposed during flowering resulted in increased proline accumulation relative to no stress and stress imposed during vegetative growth. Harvest index was lower when water stress was imposed during vegetative relative to flowering stage. Field trial results showed that cowpea growth was sensitive to water stress. Plant height, leaf number, chlorophyll content index and stomatal conductance were lower under rainfed relative to irrigated conditions. Sequential harvesting of leaves had no significant effect on cowpea yield. It is concluded that tropical temperature conditions are most suitable for cowpea production; the controlled environment study showed best crop performance under 33/27ºC. In the context of varieties used for the present study, vegetative growth was the most sensitive stage to water stress. Cowpea performed better under rainfed relative to irrigated conditions with respect to yield formation. Low temperature was found to be more limiting to cowpea growth, development and productivity compared with water stress. Whereas, under high temperature conditions, water stress was more limiting to plant growth and productivity. White birch may be used as a dual purpose crop due to its ability to produce reasonable grain yield regardless of defoliation. / Thesis (M.Sc.Agric)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2012.

Parmi les perturbations attendues des écosystèmes forestiers dans le cadre du changement climatique, les dégâts causés par les insectes ravageurs devraient augmenter en raison notamment de la hausse des températures. Ces dommages devraient réduire la capacité des forêts à stocker du carbone, et donc à atténuer les causes du changement climatique. Plus spécifiquement, il est prédit que l’augmentation des pullulations d’insectes défoliateurs conduise à une diminution importante de la productivité des forêts mais leur impact réel est difficile à quantifier et à comprendre. L’objectif général de ce travail a donc été d’améliorer nos connaissances sur l’impact d’une défoliation sur la croissance d’arbres d’âges contrastés et soumis à différentes contraintes environnementales. Dans un premier temps, ce travail a permis de quantifier la relation entre l’intensité de défoliation de la processionnaire du pin et la perte de production du pin maritime. Une méta-analyse nous a permis de synthétiser les résultats de l’ensemble des 45 études publiées à ce jour sur le sujet. Par la suite, profitant d’une pullulation exceptionnelle de processionnaire du pin pendant l’hiver 2009-2010, nous avons expérimentalement testé l’effet de défoliations variant de 25 à 100% en interaction avec l’âge des peuplements de pin maritime. Nous concluons que les pertes de production sont proportionnelles à l’intensité de défoliation et augmentent avec l’âge de l’arbre.L’évolution du climat étant susceptible de favoriser la combinaison de différents stress, nous nous sommes également intéressés aux effets cumulés de la défoliation et du stress hydrique sur la croissance de l’arbre. Notre étude révèle que la défoliation et le stress hydrique ont des effets additifs sur la croissance du pin maritime. Nos résultats confirment la complexité de la réponse éco-physiologique de l’arbre à la défoliation. L’étude des réserves carbonées et azotées nous a permis d’explorer les possibles mécanismes sous-jacents à l’effet d’une défoliation. Plus qu’une simple diminution de la fixation carbonée par altération de l’appareil photosynthétique, nous proposons que la défoliation affecte la croissance via des processus de limitation en ressources carbonées et azotées. Les réserves carbonées n’étant affectées qu’en début de saison, nous émettons l’hypothèse d’une limitation azotée de l’arbre après défoliation. Ainsi, la défoliation et le stress hydrique pourraient diminuer conjointement la disponibilité en eau et en ressources minérales, ce qui expliquerait leurs effets additifs sur la croissance de l’arbre. / In the context of climate change, forest pest outbreaks, among other biotic disturbances, are expected to be more frequent in response to increasing temperatures. The resulting damage is likely to adversely affect forests net primary production and their contribution to climate mitigation via carbon sequestration. More specifically, insect defoliators are to predicted to be more prevalent in the future but their real impact on forest productivity is difficult to evaluate and interpret. Our main objective was then to improve our understanding of insect defoliation impact on tree growth at different tree ages and under various climatic conditions.First, we assessed the relationship between the intensity of pine processionary moth defoliation and maritime pine growth loss. We carried out a meta-analysis to summarize the outcomes of the 45 published studies that addressed this issue. Then, we took advantage of a severe pine processionary moth outbreak to set up a large field experiment where we controlled for both the age (from 3 to 40 years old) and the defoliation rate (from 25 to 100%) of Pinus pinaster trees. We showed that radial growth losses were proportional to defoliation intensity and more important in older trees.As the combination of several disturbances is likely to be more frequent under climate change, we developed a manipulative experiment to quantify the cumulative impact of water stress and defoliation on maritime pine tree growth. We found additive detrimental effects of water stress and defoliation on maritime pine tree growth.Our results confirm that tree response to defoliation, including various eco-physiological processes, is complex. To decipher the underlying mechanisms we analyzed the dynamics of nutrient and carbohydrates pools in defoliated trees during the growing season. Our findings suggest that defoliation affect tree growth through resource limitation rather than via a reduction of carbon fixation due to altered photosynthesis. Since carbohydrates pools were only affected early in the season, our results support the hypothesis of a nitrogen limitation in trees following defoliation. Additive effects of defoliation and water stress may then be explained by similar adverse consequences on water flow and nitrogen uptake.

O manejo do pastejo tem grande influência sobre produtividade animal a pasto, resposta à adubação e longevidade da pastagem, seja em sistemas adubados ou não adubados. É necessário conhecer o manejo do pastejo mais adequado para cada sistema. Neste estudo em Piracicaba SP, Brasil, foram analisadas respostas de Panicum maximum cv. Tanzânia adubado (A) e não adubado (NA), à manejos do pastejo com interrupção da rebrota aos 95% de interceptação luminosa (I.L.) e três severidades de desfolha (alturas de resíduo de 20cm, 30cm, e 50cm). As pastagens adubadas receberam 572 kgN.ha-1, 472 kgK2O.ha-1 e 230 kgP2O5.ha-1, e as pastagens não adubadas não receberam nenhum tipo de fertilização. O pastejo foi realizada por bovinos. O delineamento foi o de blocos completos casualizados, com 6 tratamentos (A20, A30, A50, NA20, NA30 e NA50) e 5 repetições, totalizando 30 unidades experimentais (piquetes) de 400 m² cada. O período de avalições foi de julho de 2010 a março de 2011. Não foi possível atingir 95% de I.L. nos tratamentos NA20 e NA30, que tiveram entrada aos 91% e 89% respectivamente, nos demais tratamentos a entrada dos animais ficou entre 94% e 96% de I.L.. O intervalo entre pastejos do tratamento NA50 foi de 130 dias, e dos tratamentos adubados 90d, 29d e 17d, para os períodos de inverno primavera e verão respectivamente. Não houve diferença de alturas de entrada nos tratamentos não adubados (91cm). A altura de entrada do tratamento A50 foi maior que ás dos tratamentos A30 e A20 (74cm x 56cm e 50cm respectivamente). A massa de forragem em pré pastejo variou entre 3596 e 9518 kgMS.ha-1, apresentando maior proporção de material morto e menor proporção de folhas nos resíduos de 50cm. A massa seca total em pós pastejo foi maior quanto maior a altura de resíduo (1224, 1926 e 5556 kgMS.ha-1 para os resíduos de 20cm, 30cm e 50cm respectivamente). A massa seca de folhas verdes em pós pastejo foi maior nos resíduos de 50cm (248, 470 e 1616 kgMS.ha-1 para os resíduos de 20cm, 30cm e 50cm respectivamente). A proporção de folhas no resíduo não variou entre alturas nos tratamentos adubados (28%), mas foi decrescente conforme reduções no resíduo dos não adubados (34%, 22% e 13% nos resíduos de 50cm, 30cm e 20cm respectivamente). O acúmulo total dos tratamentos adubados e não adubados foi de 19514 e 8897 kgMS.ha-1 respectivamente. O acúmulo dos pastos adubados foi de 3204, 7484 e 9703 kgMS.ha-1 no inverno, primavera e verão respectivamente. A proporção de perdas em relação ao cúmulo foi maior nos resíduos de 50cm em relação aos de 20cm e 30cm (46% x 30% e 29% respectivamente). A densidade populacional de perfilhos foi de 672 e 521 perfilhos.m-2 em pastos adubados e não adubados respectivamente. A infestação por plantas invasoras foi maior nos resíduos de 20cm, independentemente da adubação. É possível que o manejo do pastejo mais adequado seja de alturas pré e pós pastejo mais altas sem adubação, e mais baixas com adubação intensiva. / In pasture based production systems, grazing management has great influence over productivity, responses to fertilization and pasture longevity. There may be differences between best ways of managing the grazing process in tropical grasses under different fertility conditions. The aim of this study was to analyze the effects of defoliation severity associated with defoliation frequency based in light interception (95%) over Panicum maximum cv. Tanzânia grasslands under hi and low fertilization. The experiment was conducted at São Paulo State University, Piracicaba SP Brazil. Treatments were factorial combinations of 2 fertility conditions, fertilized (F) and unfertilized (UF) grasslands and 3 defoliation intensities (20cm, 30cm and 50cm post grazing heights). Fertilized treatments received 572 kg N.ha-1, 472 kg K2O.ha-1 e 230 kg P2O5.ha-1, and unfertilized didnt receive any kind of fertilization. Beef cattle steers were used as defoliation agents. Treatments were distributed among the 30 experimental units (400 m² paddocks) according to a complete and randomized block design, with 6 treatments (F20, F30, F50, NF20, NF30 and NF50) and 5 replications. The evaluation period was from July, 2010 to March 2011. Unfertilized treatments with the lower post grazing heights (20cm and 30cm) could not reach 95% of light interception due to it leaves morphology (upright) and small tiller population. Grazing intervals were the same among fertilized treatments in the summer (17 days). Pasture height in the moment that it achieved 95% of light interception were higher for the unfertilized grasslands, and for the higher post grazing treatments. Smaller post grazing heights were related with greater leaf and less dead material proportion in the pre grazing forage mass. There was no effect of the residual heights over the leaf proportion in the post grazing mass considering the fertilized pastures. Lower defoliation intensities were related with bigger proportions of forage losses due to grazing process. Fertilized treatments produced 19514 kg of DM.ha-1 while the unfertilized treatments produced 8897 kg of DM.ha-1 in 198 days, and there was no influence of residual heights over this characteristic. Tiller densities were affected only by fertilization and not by the grazing intensity. However, the grazing intensity had effect in to the weed appearance.

Os trabalhos de pesquisa não têm dado ênfase à importância das características morfológicas e fisiológicas relacionadas com a produtividade das plantas forrageiras tropicais sob pastejo. Existe a necessidade de se saber como o dossel forrageiro responde a regimes de desfolha, em termos de morfologia de plantas, estrutura do pasto, arquitetura do dossel e de processos fisiológicos como a fotossíntese, para que estratégias ótimas de colheita via pastejo sejam identificadas. O objetivo deste trabalho foi quantificar respostas morfológicas e fisiológicas de dosséis de capim Tanzânia (Panicum maximum Jacq. cv. Tanzânia) sob três intensidades de pastejo, sob lotação rotacionada e irrigação, procurando estabelecer relações causa-efeito não só entre as variáveis estudadas, mas também entre elas e a produção do pasto, medida como acúmulo de massa seca. O experimento foi conduzido na Fazenda Areão da USP/ESALQ, em Piracicaba, SP, em uma área de 4,8 ha de capim Tanzânia. Os tratamentos foram três intensidades de pastejo, aplicados como quantidades de matéria seca verde residual pós-pastejo (T1=1000; T2=2500 e T3=4000 kg MSV ha -1 ), em um delineamento experimental de blocos completos casualizados com quatro repetições. Durante oito ciclos de pastejo (rebrotas de 33 dias após três dias de pastejo em cada ciclo), foram realizadas avaliações de altura média do dossel, índice de área foliar (IAF), interceptação luminosa (IL), ângulos foliares médios, fotossíntese foliar líquida (FFL) e temperatura foliar (TF), em quatro dias dentro do período de rebrota (1, 11, 22 e 33 dias após a saída dos animais). A massa de forragem foi estimada pré- e pós-pastejo em um experimento acompanhante e, com os valores de massa, foram calculados o acúmulo e a taxa de acúmulo de forragem. Calibrações de massa versus altura do dossel nessas datas, foram usadas para estimar as massas nos quatro momentos do período de rebrota. A análise de correlações parciais indicou correlações entre altura e MF, altura e IL, IAF e IL, e ângulos foliares e MF. Com o progresso da estação de pastejo, da primavera-verão para outono-inverno houve reduções nas taxas de FFL, TF e IAF médio. Valores médios de IAF crítico (95% IL) foram de 3,3 (T1), 3,8 (T2) e 4,2 (T3), alcançados por volta do 22 o dia das rebrotas. Não houve diferença entre tratamentos para taxa de acúmulo líquido de forragem (média = 88,7 kg MS ha -1 d -1 ) nem para acúmulo total de forragem (média = 21652 kg MS ha -1 acumulado nos 8 ciclos de pastejo). A maior intensidade de pastejo (menor resíduo) alterou a estrutura da pastagem no que diz respeito à arquitetura do dossel, evidenciada pela redução nos ângulos foliares médios (folhas mais planas) ao longo das estações, com plantas passando a interceptar mais luz por unidade de área foliar. Os IAFs críticos medidos sugerem a necessidade de períodos de descanso relativamente curtos em pastos de capim Tanzânia, submetidos a pastejo intensivo sob lotação rotacionada e irrigação. A maior intensidade de pastejo também não causou depressão no vigor de rebrota medido como a taxa de acúmulo líquido de forragem. É necessário, entretanto, avaliar a persistência e perenidade de pastagens de capim Tanzânia manejadas com altas intensidades de pastejo, a longo prazo. O manejo da pastagem em sistemas intensivos de produção, deve buscar níveis de resíduos pós-pastejo que permitam altas taxas iniciais de acúmulo líquido de forragem. / Research has often not emphasized the importance of morphological and physiological traits that are related to the productivity of tropical forages under grazing. There is a need for clarification on how does the sward respond to specific defoliation regimes, in relation to plant morphology, sward structure and architecture, as well as physiological processes such as photosynthesis, so that optimum grazing methods can be devised. The objective of this research was to quantify morphological and physiological responses of Tanzania grass (Panicum maximum Jacq. cv. Tanzania) under three grazing intensities in an irrigated, rotationally stocked setting, in order to establish cause-effect relationships not only among the variables under study, but also between each of them and pasture productivity, expressed as forage dry mass accumulation. The experiment was conducted at Fazenda Areão of USP-ESALQ, in Piracicaba, SP, on a 4,8-ha pasture of Tanzania grass. Treatments consisted of three grazing intensities, represented by three post-graze forage masses (T1=1000, T2=2500, and T3=4000 kg green dry mass ha -1 ), in a randomized complete block design with four replications. During the grazing season (eight 36-d cycles; 3 d grazing followed by 33 d rest) the following measurements were taken: mean sward height, leaf area index (LAI), light interception (LI), mean leaf angles, net leaf photosynthesis (NLP), and leaf temperature (LT), all measured on four occasions (1, 11, 22, and 33 days after grazing was terminated) of each rest period. Forage mass (FM) was measured in a companion study and mass values were used to calculate forage accumulation and accumulation trates. Calibrations were done between forage mass and sward height and used to estimate mass from height during the regrowth phase. Partial correlation analysis indicated the existence of correlations between height and FM, height and LI, LAI and LI, and leaf angles and FM. As the grazing season progressed from spring-summer to autumn-winter, NLP rates, LT, and mean LAI declined. Mean critical LAI (95% LI) was 3.3 (T1), 3.8 (T2), and 4.2 (T3) and was always reached around the 22nd day after grazing. No differences were found in forage accumulation rate (mean = 88.7 kg dry matter ha -1 d -1 )or in total seasonal accumulation (mean = 21652 kg DM ha -1 ) among treatments. Over the season, hard grazing (lower residual mass) altered the sward structure causing shifts in plant architecture, as shown by reduced (more horizontal) leaf angles, as plants begun to intercept more light per unit of leaf area. Critical LAI values suggest that relatively short rest periods may be advantageous for Tanzania grass pastures managed intensively under rotational stocking and irrigation. Hard grazing (1000 kg residual green dry matter ha -1 ) also did not depress regrowth vigor, measured as mean forage accumulation rate. There is a need, however, to assess the long-term persistence of these intensively managed, heavily grazed pastures. Grazing management in these intensive systems should aim at post-graze forage masses that allow for maximum accumulation rates in early regrowth.

No Brasil, a produção das pastagens é um importante componente da bovinocultura pois o pasto é o principal recurso alimentar utilizado na alimentação do maior rebanho comercial de bovinos do mundo. Assim, é imprescindível o conhecimento dos fatores de manejo que interferem na produção de forragem, tornando mais clara a tomada de decisões dentro do sistema de produção. Contudo, para algumas plantas forrageiras, a exemplo das gramíneas do gênero Cynodon, informações técnico-científicas ainda são escassas em regiões tropicais, especialmente para genótipos recentemente introduzidos, como os capins Jiggs e Vaquero. Isso leva ao estreitamento de oportunidades de utilização eficiente desses materiais, uma vez que diferenças entre Cynodons, por sutis que sejam, sugerem a necessidade de manejos diferentes para que cada genótipo externe seu potencial. O estudo de plantas forrageiras colhidas sob diferentes regimes de desfolhação pode ajudar na diferenciação do potencial de produção e utilização de espécies e cultivares dentro de estratégias de manejo estabelecidos a partir de determinação dos limites ecofisiológicos do manejo proposto. Nesse sentido, o objetivo deste trabalho foi descrever e explicar características produtivas, morfológicas e estruturais dos capins Tifton 85, Jiggs e Vaquero e parâmetros de crescimento dos capins Jiggs e Tifton 85 em resposta às frequências de desfolhação de 14, 28 e 42 dias. O experimento foi conduzido na Escola Superior de Agricultura Luiz de Queiroz, campus da USP, localizado em Piracicaba SP, no período de 21 de dezembro de 2010 a 21 de dezembro de 2011. O delineamento experimental foi o inteiramente casualizado, em arranjo fatorial, possibilitando a combinação entre os capins e as três frequências de desfolhação, com quatro repetições. Foram avaliadas a produção total e estacional de forragem, composição morfológica da forragem colhida e caracteríticas estruturais do dossel, incluido altura no précorte, IAF e interceptação de luz dos capins Tifton 85, Jiggs e Vaquero. Foi também realizada a análise de crescimento dos capins Tifton 85 e Jiggs, determinando-se a taxa de crescimento da cultura (TCC), taxa de crescimento relativo (TCR), taxa de assimiliação líquida (TAL), características morfológicas e eficiência de colheita (EC). No verão e primavera, o capim Jiggs é tão produtivo quanto o Tifton 85, porém o Tifton 85 apresenta maior proporção de folhas na forragem colhida. Na frequência de 42 dias, o capim Jiggs é mais produtivo que os demais cultivares quando considerada a produção total de forragem (25,96 Mg MS ha-1), mas é semelhante ao Tifton 85 na frequência de 28 dias (16,64 Mg MS ha-1). Considerando a produção de forragem e relação folha/colmo, no verão e primavera, o corte dos capins Jiggs e Tifton 85 deve ser realizado a cada 28 dias e o Vaquero na frequência de 42 dias. O capim Vaquero é menos estacional, devido à menor produção de forragem na primavera e verão. Independente da frequência de desfolhação, o capim Jiggs apresentou maior taxa de assimilação líquida (TAL) (10,56 g m2 dia-1). Características morfológicas e estruturais do dossel fazem com que o Jiggs tenha maiores de taxas de crescimento relativo (TCR) para atingir os níveis de produção do Tifton 85 no verão e primavera. Gramíneas com produção semelhante nas estações de crescimento podem apresentar diferenças importantes na estrutura do dossel e taxas de crescimento, indicando que a utilização de práticas de manejo generalistas em cultivares de Cynodon podem afetar o potencial produtivo e as características morfológicas da forragem colhida. / In Brazil, forage production is key because it is the main feed resource used to feed the largest commercial cattle herd in the world. Thus, it is essential to know the management factors that influence forage production, and that can be uses in decision-making within the production system. However, for some forages, suchas grasses of the genus Cynodon, technical and scientific information are still scarce in tropical regions, especially for recentlyintroduced genotypes, such as Jiggs and Vaquero bermudagrasses. This narrows the range of opportunity for efficient use of these materials, since differences between Cynodons, for subtle they are, suggest the need forgenotype-specific management so that each grass can be used to its full potential. The study of forages harvested under different frequencies of defoliation can help differentiate yield potential and best utilization methods of species and cultivars under such managements if they are established from information on the ecophysiological limits resulting from the management proposed. The objective of this study was to describe and explain productive, morphological and structural traits, Tifton 85, Jiggs and Vaquero bermudagrasses, and growth patterns of Tifton 85 and Jiggs bermudagrasses in response to frequencies of defoliation (every 14, 28 and 42 days). The trial was carried out at Escola Superior de Agricultura \"Luiz de Queiroz\", USP, in Piracicaba - SP, from December 21, 2010 through December 21, 2011. A completely randomized design was used with a factorial arrangement, with four replications. Responses measured included total and seasonal yield, plant-part composition of the forage harvested and canopy characteristics, pre-harvest sward height, LAI and light interception of Tifton 85, Jiggs and Vaquero bermudagrasses. Growth analysis was also performed on Tifton 85 and Jiggs bermudagrasses, including crop growth rate (CGR), relative growth rate (RGR), net assimilation rate (NAR), morphological characteristics and harvest efficiency (HE). In spring and summer, Jiggs bermudagrass is as productive as Tifton 85, but Tifton 85 forage is leafier. Under the 42-d frequency Jiggs is more productive than the other cultivars for total forage production (25.96 Mg MS ha-1), but is similar to Tifton 85 at the frequency of 28 days (16.64 Mg MS ha-1). For optimal forage production and leaf / stem ratio, in summer and spring, Jiggs and Tifton 85 should be harvested every 28 days, and Vaquero every 42 days. Vaquero has a less pronounced seasonal growth, mainly because poor forage production in spring and summer. Regardless of the clipping frequency, Jiggs had great net assimilation rate (NAR) (10.56 g m2 day-1). Plant-part composition and canopy structure make for high relative growth rates (RGR) of Jiggs, similar to that of Tifton 85 in spring and summer. Grasses with similar level of production in the growing season may have important differences in canopy structure and growth rates, indicating that the use of non-specific management practices in Cynodons can affect the productive potential and the morphological characteristics of the forage harvested.

Submitted by Gabriela Lopes (gmachadolopesufpel@gmail.com) on 2017-07-05T14:11:03Z No. of bitstreams: 2 license_rdf: 0 bytes, checksum: d41d8cd98f00b204e9800998ecf8427e (MD5) Dissertação Final.pdf: 2449316 bytes, checksum: 3ddf1827ab91a2c84692f64d9ae89d4b (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Aline Batista (alinehb.ufpel@gmail.com) on 2017-07-11T20:58:59Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 2 Dissertação Final.pdf: 2449316 bytes, checksum: 3ddf1827ab91a2c84692f64d9ae89d4b (MD5) license_rdf: 0 bytes, checksum: d41d8cd98f00b204e9800998ecf8427e (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2017-07-11T20:58:59Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 2 Dissertação Final.pdf: 2449316 bytes, checksum: 3ddf1827ab91a2c84692f64d9ae89d4b (MD5) license_rdf: 0 bytes, checksum: d41d8cd98f00b204e9800998ecf8427e (MD5) Previous issue date: 2017-03-21 / Conselho Nacional de Pesquisa e Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico - CNPq / Os minitomates têm conquistado espaço no mercado devido a sua aptidão para o consumo in natura. No entanto, estudos acerca da melhor forma de condução das plantas, sistemas de cultivo, práticas de manejo e seus efeitos sobre a produtividade, necessidades climáticas, e normas de classificação dos frutos são assuntos a serem esclarecidos. A adoção de técnicas de cultivo de baixo custo e baixo impacto ambiental são preconizadas, e os sistemas de cultivo sem solo com recirculação da solução nutritiva drenada são os mais adequados. Diante disto dois experimentos foram conduzidos em estufa, no Campo Didático do Departamento de Fitotecnia, da Faculdade de Agronomia Eliseu Maciel, da Universidade Federal de Pelotas, nos anos de 2015 e 2016. O primeiro experimento teve como objetivos avaliar o crescimento, o comportamento produtivo e a qualidade de frutos de minitomates dos tipos Grape e Cereja cultivados em dois sistemas fechados de cultivo (vasos e calhas), em substrato de casca de arroz in natura sob diferentes intensidades de desfolha (sem desfolha, uma e duas folhas removidas por simpódio). Também foi realizada a classificação dos frutos por tamanho, empregando-se um grupo de cinco peneiras com perfurações específicas para cada cultivar. O segundo experimento objetivou definir a influência da temperatura e da radiação solar sobre o crescimento das plantas de minitomateiro em estufa em ciclo de outono-inverno, bem como, encontrar o menor valor de radiação solar em que houvesse acúmulo significativo de massa seca pelas plantas. A cultivar Cereja apresentou maior crescimento com acúmulo de massa seca total entre 958 e 1623 g planta-1 , produção entre 7 e 11 kg planta-1 , e tamanho médio de frutos entre 9,7 e 12,0 g. A cultivar Grape acumulou entre 728 e 1015 g planta-1 de massa seca total, teve produção entre 4,62 e 5,84 kg planta-1 , e entre 6 e 7 g fruto-1 de peso médio. Os valores variaram conforme o nível de desfolha. A cultivar Grape apresenta frutos com maior concentração de açúcares, e a retirada de uma folha do simpódio não afeta as respostas produtivas. Entretanto, para cultivar Cereja é necessária a manutenção do simpódio completo. O sistema de cultivo em calhas melhora o crescimento e eleva as respostas produtivas, enquanto que o sistema de vasos aumenta a concentração de açúcares dos frutos. A desfolha diminui a quantidade de frutos classificados como grandes para ambas as cultivares. O sistema de calhas favorece a produção de frutos da cultivar Grape classificados como grandes. As peneiras 1, 2 e 3 são adequadas para a classificação de frutos. É possível classificar frutos de minitomates com o uso de peneiras específicas para cada tipo de fruto. As cultivares apresentam respostas semelhantes à variação da radiação solar e da temperatura. Porém, a cultivar Cereja apresenta maior área foliar e crescimento. A temperatura apresenta influência indireta sobre o metabolismo das plantas, enquanto a radiação solar exerce influência direta sobre todas as variáveis de crescimento. O limiar de radiação solar para as cultivares Cereja e Grape de minitomateiro é de aproximadamente 3,63 MJ m-2 d-1. / Mini tomatoes have gained space in the market due to their flavor for in natura consumption. However, studies on the best way of conducting plants, cropping systems, management practices and their effects on yield, climatic requirements, and fruit grading standards are matters to be clarified. The adoptions of low cost and low environmental impact techniques are recommended, and soilless cropping systems with recirculation of the nutrient solution drained are the most appropriate. Before this, two experiments were conducted in greenhouse, at the Campo Didático do Departamento de Fitotecnia, of Faculdade de Agronomia Eliseu Maciel, in Universidade Federal de Pelotas during 2015 and 2016. The first experiment had as objectives to evaluate the growth, productive behavior and fruit quality of Grape and Cherry mini tomatoes cultivated in two closed growing systems (pots and troughs), in substrate of raw rice husk under different intensities of defoliation (without defoliation, removal of one and two leaves of the sympodium). The classification of fruits by size was also performed, using a group of five sieves with specific drilling for each cultivar. The second experiment aimed to define the influence of temperature and solar radiation on the growth of mini tomato plants in a greenhouse in autumn-winter cycle, as well as to find the lowest value of solar radiation in which there is a significant accumulation of dry matter by the plants. Cherry cultivar presented the highest growth with total dry matter accumulation between 958 and 1623 g plant-1 , production between 7 and 11 kg plant-1 , and mean fruit size between 9.7 and 12.0 g. Grape cultivar accumulated between 728 and 1015 g plant-1 of total dry matter, had production between 4.62 and 5.84 kg plant-1 , and between 6 and 7 g fruit-1 of mean weight. Values varied according to the level of defoliation. Grape cultivar presented fruits with higher sugar concentration, and the removal of one leaf of the sympodium did not affect the productive responses. However, for Cherry cultivar it is necessary to maintain the complete sympodium. The troughs system improved growth and increased productive responses, while the pots growing system increased the sugar concentration of the fruits. Defoliation decreases the amount of fruits grading as large for both cultivars. Troughs system favored the production of Grape cultivars grading as large. Sieves 1, 2 and 3 are suitable for the grading of fruits. It is possible to grading fruits of mini tomatoes with the use of specific sieves for each type of fruit. Cultivars presented responses similar to the variation of solar radiation and temperature. However, Cherry cultivar presented greater leaf area and growth. The temperature had an indirect influence on the plant metabolism, while the solar radiation exerted a direct influence on all the growth variables. The solar radiation threshold for cultivars Cherry and Grape of mini tomato plant is around 3.63 MJ m-2 d-1.

Para poder compreender e descrever o crescimento das plantas forrageiras é necessário ter conhecimento acerca de seus aspectos agronômicos e morfofisiológicos e suas respostas aos fatores edafoclimáticos. O desenvolvimento de ferramentas que viabilizem a racionalização dessas inter-relações é de grande importância para a comunidade científica, ao facilitar a explicação da dinâmica do crescimento, e para o pecuarista dando opções de planejamento e auxílio à tomada de decisão na propriedade pecuária. O objetivo deste trabalho foi avaliar as respostas agronômicas e morfofisiológicas de cinco genótipos de Brachiaria spp. e gerar modelos de crescimento baseados em soma térmica e fotoperíodo além de adaptar o modelo CROPGROForragem, visando explorar esses recursos computacionais para estabelecer uma base racional de manejo desses capins. Foram estudados quatro genótipos de Brachiaria brizantha (Hochst. ex A. Rich.) Stapf (Marandu, Xaraés, Arapoty e Capiporã) e uma de B. decumbens Stapf (cv. Basilisk) colhidos a 15 e 7,5 cm durante onze ciclos distribuídos em um ano. As unidades experimentais (parcelas de 9 x 4 m) foram irrigadas e adubadas com o equivalente a 220 kg ha-1 ano-1 de N e K2O. O delineamento experimental foi de blocos completos casualizados em parcelas subdivididas com quatro repetições. Foi calculada a produção total e estacional de forragem. Foram monitoradas uma rebrotação de verão e de inverno, descrevendo-se a massa do resíduo, o fluxo de tecidos, padrão de acúmulo de forragem e as taxas de fotossíntese foliar dos capins, que foram utilizadas para a simulação da taxa de fotossíntese do dossel. Os capins Capiporã e Xaraés foram mais produtivos durante o verão. No inverno não houve diferença na produção dos genótipos. A altura de corte de 7,5 cm proporcionou maior acúmulo de forragem acima do resíduo para todos os genótipos, sendo que nesse regime de corte as plantas apresentaram as maiores taxas de crescimento em nível de perfilho, expressas pela maior taxa de alongamento e aparecimento de folhas. Além disso, houve maior renovação de perfilhos sob essas condições. Apesar dos capins terem produções diferentes, suas taxas de fotossíntese de dossel, foram semelhantes nas duas alturas de corte dentro de cada estação, sugerindo um mecanismo de compensação entre a área foliar e fotossíntese de folhas individuais. Os modelos de acúmulo de forragem baseados em graus dia (GD) e unidades fototérmicas (UF) se ajustaram bem à produção. O uso da UF mostrou-se efetivo na predição de características produtivas dos capins estudados. O resultado da adaptação do modelo CROPGRO-Forragem sugere que essa é uma ferramenta eficiente para integrar aspectos fisiológicos de B. brizantha e pode ser usado para simular o crescimento com boa exatidão. / In order to understand and describe forage growth knowledge is needed on their agronomical and physiological aspects as well as their responses to soil and climate. Developing tools that enable the rationalization of these relationships is important both under an academic (e.g., in studies of growth dynamics) and a practical (management and decision making in productions systems) standpoints. The objective of this study was to evaluate the agronomic, morphological and physiological responses of five genotypes of Brachiaria spp. and to develop growth models based on thermal sum (growing degree-days, GDD) and daylength (photothermal unit, PU) as well as to adapt the CROPGRO-Forage model, aiming at evaluating the potential of this resources in forage research and production. Four genotypes of Brachiaria brizantha (Hochst. ex A. Rich.) Stapf (Marandu, Xaraés, Arapoty, and Capiporã) and one of B. decumbens Stapf (Basilisk) were harvested at 15 and 7.5 cm over 11 cycles in one year. The experimental units (9 x 4 m plots) were irrigated and fertilized with the equivalent to 220 kg ha-1 yr-1 of N and K2O. The experimental design was a randomized complete block in split-plot with four replications. Total annual and seasonal forage yields were calculated. One mid-summer and one mid-winter regrowths were monitored weekly to describe stubble mass, tissue flow, forage accumulation rate and the rates of leaf photosynthesis, which were used to simulate canopy photosynthesis. Capiporã and Xaraés were more productive during the summer, but in winter there was no difference among genotypes in yield. Clipping at 7.5 cm yielded more forage for all genotypes and under this management, plants showed the highest growth rates at the tiller level, expressed as higher leaf appearance and elongation rates. There was also higher tiller turnover under these conditions. Despite the differences in forage yield among grasses rates of canopy photosynthesis were similar within the two clipping heights within each season, suggesting the operational of a compensatory mechanism between leaf area and photosynthesis per unit of leaf area. The accumulation models based on GDD and PU showed good fit to observed forage production. The PU model was effective in predicting the productivity of Brachiaria grasses. The adaptation of the CROPGRO-Forage model suggests it is an efficient tool to integrate physiological aspects of B. brizantha and can be used to simulate yield with good accuracy.

Para poder compreender e descrever o crescimento das plantas forrageiras é necessário ter conhecimento acerca de seus aspectos agronômicos e morfofisiológicos e suas respostas aos fatores edafoclimáticos. O desenvolvimento de ferramentas que viabilizem a racionalização dessas inter-relações é de grande importância para a comunidade científica, ao facilitar a explicação da dinâmica do crescimento, e para o pecuarista dando opções de planejamento e auxílio à tomada de decisão na propriedade pecuária. O objetivo deste trabalho foi avaliar as respostas agronômicas e morfofisiológicas de cinco genótipos de Brachiaria spp. e gerar modelos de crescimento baseados em soma térmica e fotoperíodo além de adaptar o modelo CROPGROForragem, visando explorar esses recursos computacionais para estabelecer uma base racional de manejo desses capins. Foram estudados quatro genótipos de Brachiaria brizantha (Hochst. ex A. Rich.) Stapf (Marandu, Xaraés, Arapoty e Capiporã) e uma de B. decumbens Stapf (cv. Basilisk) colhidos a 15 e 7,5 cm durante onze ciclos distribuídos em um ano. As unidades experimentais (parcelas de 9 x 4 m) foram irrigadas e adubadas com o equivalente a 220 kg ha-1 ano-1 de N e K2O. O delineamento experimental foi de blocos completos casualizados em parcelas subdivididas com quatro repetições. Foi calculada a produção total e estacional de forragem. Foram monitoradas uma rebrotação de verão e de inverno, descrevendo-se a massa do resíduo, o fluxo de tecidos, padrão de acúmulo de forragem e as taxas de fotossíntese foliar dos capins, que foram utilizadas para a simulação da taxa de fotossíntese do dossel. Os capins Capiporã e Xaraés foram mais produtivos durante o verão. No inverno não houve diferença na produção dos genótipos. A altura de corte de 7,5 cm proporcionou maior acúmulo de forragem acima do resíduo para todos os genótipos, sendo que nesse regime de corte as plantas apresentaram as maiores taxas de crescimento em nível de perfilho, expressas pela maior taxa de alongamento e aparecimento de folhas. Além disso, houve maior renovação de perfilhos sob essas condições. Apesar dos capins terem produções diferentes, suas taxas de fotossíntese de dossel, foram semelhantes nas duas alturas de corte dentro de cada estação, sugerindo um mecanismo de compensação entre a área foliar e fotossíntese de folhas individuais. Os modelos de acúmulo de forragem baseados em graus dia (GD) e unidades fototérmicas (UF) se ajustaram bem à produção. O uso da UF mostrou-se efetivo na predição de características produtivas dos capins estudados. O resultado da adaptação do modelo CROPGRO-Forragem sugere que essa é uma ferramenta eficiente para integrar aspectos fisiológicos de B. brizantha e pode ser usado para simular o crescimento com boa exatidão. / In order to understand and describe forage growth knowledge is needed on their agronomical and physiological aspects as well as their responses to soil and climate. Developing tools that enable the rationalization of these relationships is important both under an academic (e.g., in studies of growth dynamics) and a practical (management and decision making in productions systems) standpoints. The objective of this study was to evaluate the agronomic, morphological and physiological responses of five genotypes of Brachiaria spp. and to develop growth models based on thermal sum (growing degree-days, GDD) and daylength (photothermal unit, PU) as well as to adapt the CROPGRO-Forage model, aiming at evaluating the potential of this resources in forage research and production. Four genotypes of Brachiaria brizantha (Hochst. ex A. Rich.) Stapf (Marandu, Xaraés, Arapoty, and Capiporã) and one of B. decumbens Stapf (Basilisk) were harvested at 15 and 7.5 cm over 11 cycles in one year. The experimental units (9 x 4 m plots) were irrigated and fertilized with the equivalent to 220 kg ha-1 yr-1 of N and K2O. The experimental design was a randomized complete block in split-plot with four replications. Total annual and seasonal forage yields were calculated. One mid-summer and one mid-winter regrowths were monitored weekly to describe stubble mass, tissue flow, forage accumulation rate and the rates of leaf photosynthesis, which were used to simulate canopy photosynthesis. Capiporã and Xaraés were more productive during the summer, but in winter there was no difference among genotypes in yield. Clipping at 7.5 cm yielded more forage for all genotypes and under this management, plants showed the highest growth rates at the tiller level, expressed as higher leaf appearance and elongation rates. There was also higher tiller turnover under these conditions. Despite the differences in forage yield among grasses rates of canopy photosynthesis were similar within the two clipping heights within each season, suggesting the operational of a compensatory mechanism between leaf area and photosynthesis per unit of leaf area. The accumulation models based on GDD and PU showed good fit to observed forage production. The PU model was effective in predicting the productivity of Brachiaria grasses. The adaptation of the CROPGRO-Forage model suggests it is an efficient tool to integrate physiological aspects of B. brizantha and can be used to simulate yield with good accuracy.