Nesta pesquisa realizamos estudos sobre história da cosmologia, buscando estimular discussões a respeito de aspectos controversos da ciência, ou sobre a chamada \"natureza da ciência\". A partir de uma revisão de pesquisas que buscaram subsídios da história e da filosofia das ciências para o ensino de ciências, apresentamos e problematizamos a chamada \"visão consensual sobre a natureza da ciência\". Essa visão, que tem aparecido em muitas pesquisas recentes, considera que somente os aspectos não controversos dos debates sobre a natureza da ciência devam ser ensinados na educação básica. Com o objetivo de evidenciar o valor de controvérsias na educação, buscamos casos na história da cosmologia que parecem ter potencial para serem levados tanto para a formação inicial e continuada de professores, quanto para o ensino médio. Inicialmente, apresentamos várias influências complexas que atuaram durante o processo de criação e aceitação da teoria da expansão do universo, na primeira metade do século XX. Com base em duas visões antagônicas de filósofos da ciência sobre a mudança das teorias científicas, o racionalismo crítico de Lakatos e o anarquismo epistemológico de Feyerabend, criamos duas sínteses de obras sobre a história da cosmologia: uma reconstrução racional da história e uma história com maior espaço para a pluralidade de teorias e a presença de fatores usualmente considerados não racionais na ciência. Como forma de investigar a viabilidade de levar controvérsias para a educação básica, criamos uma sequência de ensino e aprendizagem estruturada a partir de um jogo, em que o objetivo geral foi gerar discussões sobre influências socioculturais sobre a ciência. Este tema é controverso, envolvendo tensões historiográficas (internalismo contra externalismo), filosóficas (racionalismo contra relativismo) e educacionais, já que educadores se mostraram preocupados com o risco de que ensinar ciências fazendo uso de uma história externalista, debatendo influências sociais sobre a ciência, poderia levar à desvalorização da ciência pelos estudantes. Nesse jogo, inspirado em estudos históricos mas também incluindo criações ficcionais, professor e alunos atuam como membros de uma organização de fomento à ciência e argumentam sobre o valor de teorias cosmológicas, no período entre 1914 a 1939. Para isso estudam tanto aspectos da história da cosmologia, como também da história política, cultural e econômica neste período. Com base na avaliação da sequência de ensino e aprendizagem em uma escola pública, argumentamos que é possível evitar o relativismo, desde que o professor esteja atento para esse risco. A maior parte dos argumentos dos estudantes mostrou que mesmo quando eles debatiam influências políticas sobre a ciência, erros, disputas de prioridade e até mesmo decisões irracionais de cientistas, mantinham a defesa de valores típicos da visão clássica de ciência como ideal viável a ser perseguido pela comunidade científica. / In this research we have performed studies on history of cosmology, aiming to stimulate discussions regarding controversial aspects of science, or about the so called \"nature of science\". After a review of recent researches which seek subsidies of history and philosophy of science for science education, we present and problematize the so called \"consensual view of the nature of science\". This view, which has been adopted by several researchers in the last decades, considers that only non controversial aspects of the debates about the nature of science should be taught in basic education. With the goal of highlighting the value of controversies in education, we have looked for cases on history of cosmology which seem to have potential to be taught both on teacher training courses and high school physics classes. Initially, we present several complex influences that were present during the process of creation and acceptance of the theory of the expansion of the universe, during the first half of 20th century. Based on antagonistic views of philosophers of science about changes on scientific theories, Lakatos\' critical rationalism and Feyerabend\'s epistemological anarchism, we have created two synthesis of secondary sources on history of cosmology: a rational reconstruction of history and a history with more attention to the plurality of theories and the presence of influences on science that are usually considered not rational. In order to investigate the viability of teaching controversies on basic education, we have created a teaching and learning sequence structured by a didactic game, whose general goal is to promote discussions about sociocultural influences on science. This is a controversial issue, related to historiographic tensions (such as internalism againt externalism), philosophical tensions (such as rationalism against relativism) and educational tensions, since educators have been concerned with the risk that teaching about external influences on science could lead students to devalue science. In this game, inspired by historical studies but also including fictional creations, the teacher and students play roles as members of a science funding agency and argue about the value of cosmological theories, in the period from 1914 to 1939. They study both aspects of history of cosmology, such as aspects of the political, cultural and economic history of this period. Based on the evaluation of this teaching and learning sequence in a public high school, we argue that it is possible to avoid relativism, if the teacher is aware about this risk. Most of the students arguments showed that even when they debated social influences on science, errors, priority disputes and even scientists\' irrational decisions, they kept the defense of values that are typical of the classical view of science as a plausible ideal to be pursued by scientific community.

Nesta pesquisa realizamos estudos sobre história da cosmologia, buscando estimular discussões a respeito de aspectos controversos da ciência, ou sobre a chamada \"natureza da ciência\". A partir de uma revisão de pesquisas que buscaram subsídios da história e da filosofia das ciências para o ensino de ciências, apresentamos e problematizamos a chamada \"visão consensual sobre a natureza da ciência\". Essa visão, que tem aparecido em muitas pesquisas recentes, considera que somente os aspectos não controversos dos debates sobre a natureza da ciência devam ser ensinados na educação básica. Com o objetivo de evidenciar o valor de controvérsias na educação, buscamos casos na história da cosmologia que parecem ter potencial para serem levados tanto para a formação inicial e continuada de professores, quanto para o ensino médio. Inicialmente, apresentamos várias influências complexas que atuaram durante o processo de criação e aceitação da teoria da expansão do universo, na primeira metade do século XX. Com base em duas visões antagônicas de filósofos da ciência sobre a mudança das teorias científicas, o racionalismo crítico de Lakatos e o anarquismo epistemológico de Feyerabend, criamos duas sínteses de obras sobre a história da cosmologia: uma reconstrução racional da história e uma história com maior espaço para a pluralidade de teorias e a presença de fatores usualmente considerados não racionais na ciência. Como forma de investigar a viabilidade de levar controvérsias para a educação básica, criamos uma sequência de ensino e aprendizagem estruturada a partir de um jogo, em que o objetivo geral foi gerar discussões sobre influências socioculturais sobre a ciência. Este tema é controverso, envolvendo tensões historiográficas (internalismo contra externalismo), filosóficas (racionalismo contra relativismo) e educacionais, já que educadores se mostraram preocupados com o risco de que ensinar ciências fazendo uso de uma história externalista, debatendo influências sociais sobre a ciência, poderia levar à desvalorização da ciência pelos estudantes. Nesse jogo, inspirado em estudos históricos mas também incluindo criações ficcionais, professor e alunos atuam como membros de uma organização de fomento à ciência e argumentam sobre o valor de teorias cosmológicas, no período entre 1914 a 1939. Para isso estudam tanto aspectos da história da cosmologia, como também da história política, cultural e econômica neste período. Com base na avaliação da sequência de ensino e aprendizagem em uma escola pública, argumentamos que é possível evitar o relativismo, desde que o professor esteja atento para esse risco. A maior parte dos argumentos dos estudantes mostrou que mesmo quando eles debatiam influências políticas sobre a ciência, erros, disputas de prioridade e até mesmo decisões irracionais de cientistas, mantinham a defesa de valores típicos da visão clássica de ciência como ideal viável a ser perseguido pela comunidade científica. / In this research we have performed studies on history of cosmology, aiming to stimulate discussions regarding controversial aspects of science, or about the so called \"nature of science\". After a review of recent researches which seek subsidies of history and philosophy of science for science education, we present and problematize the so called \"consensual view of the nature of science\". This view, which has been adopted by several researchers in the last decades, considers that only non controversial aspects of the debates about the nature of science should be taught in basic education. With the goal of highlighting the value of controversies in education, we have looked for cases on history of cosmology which seem to have potential to be taught both on teacher training courses and high school physics classes. Initially, we present several complex influences that were present during the process of creation and acceptance of the theory of the expansion of the universe, during the first half of 20th century. Based on antagonistic views of philosophers of science about changes on scientific theories, Lakatos\' critical rationalism and Feyerabend\'s epistemological anarchism, we have created two synthesis of secondary sources on history of cosmology: a rational reconstruction of history and a history with more attention to the plurality of theories and the presence of influences on science that are usually considered not rational. In order to investigate the viability of teaching controversies on basic education, we have created a teaching and learning sequence structured by a didactic game, whose general goal is to promote discussions about sociocultural influences on science. This is a controversial issue, related to historiographic tensions (such as internalism againt externalism), philosophical tensions (such as rationalism against relativism) and educational tensions, since educators have been concerned with the risk that teaching about external influences on science could lead students to devalue science. In this game, inspired by historical studies but also including fictional creations, the teacher and students play roles as members of a science funding agency and argue about the value of cosmological theories, in the period from 1914 to 1939. They study both aspects of history of cosmology, such as aspects of the political, cultural and economic history of this period. Based on the evaluation of this teaching and learning sequence in a public high school, we argue that it is possible to avoid relativism, if the teacher is aware about this risk. Most of the students arguments showed that even when they debated social influences on science, errors, priority disputes and even scientists\' irrational decisions, they kept the defense of values that are typical of the classical view of science as a plausible ideal to be pursued by scientific community.

In this diploma paper there is a set of biological didactic games for natural science at primary school. The games are divided into four sections - botanical games, zoological games and some topics of human biology, mineralogy and geology. According to the possibilities of their usage in the education they are divided into three groups again. We call them revision games, which are useful to revision and fix curriculum, and knowing games for gaining new knowledge and finally motivational games to interest the students. The theoretical base is set on specialized literature. In the appendix there are concepts of didactical games with their gadgets like texts, cards, game plans, pictures, maps and photographs.

The thesis focuses on using the activating function of a didactic game as a method in the English lessons at primary school. It looks for the arguments supporting using the game at school, the obstacles causing problems using it and suggests possible solutions. The research part seeks different usage of didactic games in real environment, different favour of particular types of games and their relationship to the educational aim. There are found connections between children's age and their positive feelings towards different kinds of games and their ability to reach the educational aim.

Didaktiniai žaidimai vaidina svarbų vaidmenį, siekiant pamoką padaryti įdomesne, didinant mokinių motyvaciją dalyvauti mokymosi procese. Pedagoginėje literatūroje ir mokslinėje bei mokyklinėje praktikoje jau daugelį metų diskutuojama apie šio metodo taikymo mokyme galimybes. Žaidimo tinkamumą mokymui savo pasisakymuose minėjo Platonas ir Aristotelis. Mokslinėje literatūroje, pedagoginėje publicistikoje plačiai aptariamas didaktinių žaidimų naudojimas mokymosi procese. Mokslininkai, pedagogai praktikai (Montessori M., 2004, Pokrovskis A., 1994, Grinevičienė N., 2002, Kontautienė Z.,1978 ir kt.) nagrinėja didaktinių žaidimų panaudojimo galimybes ugdant skirtingo amžiaus vaikus, aiškinasi šio metodo naudojimo privalumus skirtingų dalykų pamokose. Tačiau iki šiol mažai nagrinėtas didaktinių žaidimų, skirtų padėti intelekto sutrikimus turinčių vaikų jausmų bei emocijų pažinimui. Vaiko emocinio vystymosi problema - viena iš aktualių problemų psichologijoje. Poddiakov A. N. (2000) (Поддьяков) savo darbe teigia, kad įvairiausių mokslininkų darbuose (Henderson B., Keller H., Rotenberg V. C. ir kt.) įrodyta, kad emocijų susiformavimo jų gausos ir diferenciacijos lygis priklauso nuo pažintinių procesų kokybės: pojūčių, jausmų suvokimo, atminties, mąstymo, motyvacijos pobūdžio bei valingu procesų būklės. Darbo objektas: protiškai atsilikusio vaiko emocinė raida didaktinio žaidimo metu, užtikrinus atitinkamas pedagoginės sąlygas. Darbo tikslas – išanalizuoti didaktinių žaidimų... [toliau žr. visą tekstą] / This master thesis consists of two papers devoted to emotional development of the child during didactic games. The first paper investigates theoretical substantiation of the problem. It discusses the roles of didactic games in child’s emotional development. The article deals with the general construct of disability, and the use of the term intellectual disability. The second paper presents results of experimental work. Experiment passed in three stages: Ascertaining stage of experiment - have revealed a degree of emotional development of children leaning on a condition of empathy. Distribution of children in groups has been lead on the basis of allocated levels of empathy by V. Мegedev (1996). Forming stage – was used system of didactic games. Control stage lean on the same methods, as at the first stage. At this stage we seek to reveal influence didactic games on emotional development of the children. Results of an experimental research convince us of that, didactic games influence not only emotional development of children, but also on development of the person as a whole. Thus, under influence of a purposeful management in didactic games children with mental disabilities have an emotional progress more intensively.

This diploma thesis focuses on a didactic game and its usage within an educational process. The subject of the thesis is, on the basis of the study of the expert literature and expertly focused primary resources from various fields, to create and test a functional web computer game with didactic content. The theoretical part focuses on the very phenomenon of a game; from a historical and philosophical point of view as well as from the current interpretation of electronic games and a game in the context of didactic methods. In the empirical investigation, the thesis contains the whole development of the game, possibilities of its modification depending on users and the implementation of the didactic game in teaching. In the conclusion, the results of the research are given and recommendations for the research area of the development of other educational tools using Web applications as games are made.

Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior - CAPES / Nowadays, acknowledging and valuing the role of reading in language practices is to contribute to the training of critical and autonomous individuals. Thus, aiming to develop the reading literacyamong 9th grade students, of elementary education, this qualitative research, of intervencionist nature, developped a material, which includes activities, and a didactic game to foster reading strategies and text interpretation, based upon the teaching-learning of parody, one of the types of intertextuality, term originally disseminated by Kristeva (1979). It is a Pedagogical Notebook used to enhance the reading of parodistic texts, which has as theoretical bases Bakhtin ([1972] 2003),Genette (2006), Koch, Bentes and Cavalcante (2009) and Sant’anna (2000), regarding the presence of intertextuality, and the humor and irony effects in memes (multimodal texts that circulate on social networks). By using this learning object, whose methodological procedures are based upon the works of Bronckart (2006) and Dolz, Noverraz and Schneuwly (2004), it is possible to relate the use of regularities in texts that would textually define the genre structure, enabling the reading proficiency. The results were expressive, because they showed that the students before, with less reading abiliy, could improve their performance. Effectively, those who had show more fluency in the use of strategies achieved more success in reading. / Atualmente, reconhecer e valorizar o papel da leitura nas práticas de linguagem é contribuir para a formação de sujeitos críticos e autônomos. Desta forma, visando incentivar a compreensão leitora em alunos do 9º ano do Ensino Fundamental, esta pesquisa qualitativa, de natureza intervencionista, desenvolve um material com atividades e um jogo didático para estimular estratégias de leitura e interpretação de texto, fundamentando-se, para tanto, no ensino-aprendizagem da paródia, um dos tipos de intertextualidade, termo originalmente difundido por Kristeva (1979). Trata-se de um Caderno Pedagógico utilizado para trabalhar a leitura do texto parodístico, que tem como suporte teórico Bakhtin ([1972] 2003), Genette (2006), Koch, Bentes e Cavalcante (2009) e Sant’anna(2000) quanto à presença da intertextualidade e os efeitos de humor e ironia em memes (textos multimodais que circulam nas redes sociais). Por meio desse objeto de aprendizagem, cujos procedimentos metodológicos se baseiam no trabalho de Bronckart (2006) e Dolz, Noverraz e Schneuwly (2004), é possível relacionar o uso de regularidades em textos que caracterizariam a estrutura do gênero textualmente, viabilizando a proficiência em leitura. Os resultados foram expressivos, pois revelaram que alunos, antes com pouca habilidade leitora, puderam melhorar seu desempenho. Efetivamente, os que demonstraram mais fluência com o uso das estratégias obtiveram melhor êxito na leitura. / São Cristóvão, SE

The diploma thesis is devoted to proposal of activation methods in teaching of accruals at business academies. Firstly there is a theoretical part that deals with the subject of Accounting in general, and researches and articles focusing on activation methods or students' grades. Also, there is an analysis of a textbook that is used in teaching accounting at business academies and a factual analysis and didactic curriculum of accruals. Secondly there is a practical part of the thesis consists of pre-research, which was a base of experimental verification of selected methods in teaching of accruals at a business academy.

The presented master thesis is focused on practical teaching of the plant anatomy, morphology ad physiology at primary schools in the Czech Republic. The theoretical part contains a summary of the basic knowledge about plant morphology anatomy and physiology including integration of the practical teaching of natural science in Framework Education Programme and its extension into the School Education Programme. This part includes also detail theoretical background of teaching methods, which are suitable for laboratory work and didactic games. The second, practical part contains a detail description of the seven author's laboratory works and seven didactic games dealing with different topics from the plant anatomy, morphology and physiology, their practical evaluation on pupils of two primary schools and one secondary school including following detailed analysis of the realized questionnaire of these didactic materials. According to the obtained research data, it is obvious that the using of practical teaching form is more attractive for the pupils than conventional teaching methods at primary school.

This diploma thesis deals itself with activating teaching methods in chemistry teaching at primary school in the teaching topic - Chemical reactions. It is divided into two parts; theoretical and practical. The Theoretical part of the thesis defines the key terms related to the overall topic, further focuses in detail on selected activating teaching methods, its advantages and disadvantages, as well as criteria for choosing the appropriate method. Diploma more closely focuses on didactic games method in chemistry teaching in elementary schools. Also characterizes topic of educational tools in chemistry teaching in elementary school, and, in the end, closely specifies selected topic of Chemical reaction from FEP EE (Framework Educational Program for Elementary Education) and available, already existing, materials. The Practical part of the work brings a list of suggested materials regarding the topic of Chemical reaction with description of individual activities, application and environment, methodology and support means, including the results of their verification in collaboration with the elementary school of Charlotte Garrigue Masaryk in Lány in the period between months of March and June. KEYWORDS Activation of pupils, teaching chemistry at elementary school, chemical reactions, didactic games.