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L’objectif de ce travail est d'envisager les modifications de formulation ou de procédé dans la technologie de geltrusion développée par Batscap pour augmenter la fiabilité des supercondensateurs en limitant l'autodécharge. La technologie repose sur l’extrusion simultanée de polymères (PVDF, PVDF-HFP), d’un solvant (PC) et de charges (CA, NC). Le mélange réalisé en extrusion bivis est ensuite filmé et laminé sur le collecteur en aluminium. Dès lors, il a été fondamental de chercher à comprendre les interactions entre les différents composants de l’électrode, avec l’étude de la miscibilité du système ternaire polymère/polymère/solvant puis l’étude de l’adsorption du solvant sur les charges. Cette démarche a permis une meilleure compréhension des phénomènes impliqués en passant par une caractérisation approfondie du complexe, dans sa formulation actuelle aux différentes étapes du procédé. Ensuite, des modifications de formulations ont été envisagées. En particulier, l'effet de la structure et de la masse molaire des polymères sur l’adhésion a été étudié. Dans tous les cas, il a été envisagé de tester les possibilités offertes par l'utilisation d'un solvant différent (DMSO). Ce dernier étant un meilleur solvant du PVDF est plus facile à éliminer que le PC. Enfin, à partir des données rhéologiques du mélange, une modélisation mécanique, en utilisant le modèle de Maxwell à plusieurs temps de relaxation, a été menée dans l'opération de laminage du mélange en prenant en compte un comportement viscoélastique du gel. Toutes ces études ont permis de conclure sur les modifications pertinentes de la formulation ainsi que des conditions du procédé / The objective of this work is to consider changes in formulation or process of the geltrusion technology developed by Batscap to increase the reliability of supercapacitors by limiting self-discharge. The technology is based on the simultaneous extrusion of polymers (PVDF, PVDF-HFP), solvent (propylene carbonate) and fillers (activated carbon, carbon black). The mixture carried out in a twin-screw extrusion is then filmed and laminated on the aluminium collector. Therefore, it was important to understand the interactions between the different components of the electrode, and especially to study the miscibility of the ternary system polymer/polymer/solvent and also the adsorption of solvent on fillers. This approach has allowed a better understanding of the phenomena involved through a characterization of the complex, in its current form at different stages of the process. Then, changes in formulations were considered. In particular, the effect of the structure and molecular weight of the polymers on adhesion was studied. In all cases, it was envisaged to test the possibilities offered by the use of a different solvent (dimethyl sulfoxide). The latter being a better solvent for the PVDF, is also easier to remove than propylene carbonate. Finally, from the rheological data of the mixture, a mechanical modeling, using the multimodal Maxwell model, was conducted in the lamination step taking into account of the viscoelastic behavior of the gel. All these studies allow us to conclude on the relevant changes in the formulation and process conditions

Il est possible de perméabiliser la membrane plasmique des cellules par des agents chimiques (tels que les polyéthylènes glycols ou le diméthylsulfoxyde) ou par des agents physiques (tels que les ultrasons ou les impulsions électriques). Cette perméabilisation peut être réversible ou non, ce qui signifie qu’après la perméabilisation, la membrane retrouve son intégrité et ses propriétés d’hémi-perméabilité ou pas. Ces techniques peuvent être utilisées pour faire rentrer des médicaments ou des acides nucléiques dans les cellules ou pour générer des fusions cellulaires. Une approche récente, la dynamique moléculaire, utilise des simulations numériques pour prédire les effets des agents perméabilisants sur les membranes à l’échelle moléculaire, et permet d’apporter de nouvelles données pour comprendre les mécanismes moléculaires, encore peu connus à ce jour.Les impulsions dites « classiques » en électroperméabilisation, de l’ordre de la dizaine de millisecondes à la centaine de microsecondes et d’amplitude de champ de l’ordre de 100 kV/m, perméabilisent la membrane plasmique uniquement. Cependant, récemment, des impulsions plus courtes, dites impulsions nanoseconde (quelques nanosecondes) et de plus grande amplitude de champ (de l’ordre de 10 MV/m) ont été utilisées et permettent d’affecter également les membranes des organites cellulaires. Les travaux de cette thèse portent dans un premier temps sur les effets perméabilisants d’un agent chimique (le diméthylsulfoxyde, DMSO) en comparant les modèles prédictifs de la dynamique moléculaire avec des expériences in vitro sur des cellules. Le modèle numérique prédit trois régimes d’action en fonction de la concentration du DMSO. Utilisé à faible concentration, il y a déformation de la membrane plasmique. L’utilisation d’une concentration intermédiaire entraîne la formation de pores membranaires et les fortes concentrations de DMSO ont pour conséquence la destruction de la membrane. Les expériences in vitro faites sur des cellules ont confirmé ces résultats en suivant l’entrée de marqueurs de perméabilisation. Cette étude a été comparée avec la perméabilisation par un agent physique (les impulsions électriques). Dans un deuxième temps, ces travaux traitent du développement et de l’utilisation d’un nouveau dispositif d’exposition des cellules aux impulsions nanoseconde qui permet d’appliquer des champs électriques très élevés et d’observer par microscopie leurs au niveau cellulaire. Pour finir, ce dispositif a été utilisé avec des impulsions nanoseconde pour générer des pics calciques dans de cellules souches mésenchymateuses qui présentent des oscillations calciques spontanées liées à leur état de différenciation. Ces pics induits sont dus à la libération de calcium stocké dans les organites et/ou à la perméabilisation de la membrane plasmique permettant l’établissement d’un flux de calcium intramembranaire. Il est aussi possible d’utiliser des impulsions microseconde pour générer des pics calciques dans ces cellules. Dans ce cas, les pics calciques ne sont dus qu’à la perméabilisation de la membrane plasmique. En jouant sur l’amplitude des champs électriques appliqués et sur la présence ou l’absence de calcium externe, il est possible de manipuler les concentrations calciques cytosoliques en mobilisant le calcium interne ou externe. Une des particularités de ces nouveaux outils est de pouvoir être déclenchés et arrêtés instantanément, sans réminiscence, contrairement aux molécules chimiques permettant de produire des pics calciques. Ces outils pourraient donc permettre de mieux comprendre l’implication du calcium dans des mécanismes comme la différenciation, la migration ou la fécondation. / It is possible to permeabilize the cellular plasma membrane by using chemical agents (as polyethylen glycols or diméthylsulfoxyde) or physical agents (as ulstrasounds or electric pulses). This permeabilization can be reversible or not, meaning that after the permeabilization, the membrane recovers its integrity and its hemi-permeable properties. These techniques can be used for the uptake of medicines or nucleic acids or to generate cellular fusions. A recent approach, the molecular dynamics, uses numerical simulations to predict the effects of permeabilizing agents at the molecular scale, allowed generating of new data to understand the molecular mechanisms that are not completely known yet.The pulses so called “classical” in electropermeabilization, from the range of the ten of milliseconds to the hundred of microseconds and with a field amplitude in the range of 100 kV/m, can only permeabilize the plasma membrane. However, more recently, shorter pulses, so called nanopulses (few nanosecondes) and with an higher field amplitude (in the range of 10 MV/m) have been used and allow to affect also cellular organelles membranes.This thesis is, in a first time, about the permeabilizing effects of a chemical gent (the diméthylsulfoxyde, DMSO) by comparing predictive models from molecular dynamics with experiments in vitro on cells. The numerical model predicts three regimes of action depending on the DMSO concentration. Used at low concentration, there is a plasma membrane deformation. The use of an intermediate concentration lead to membrane pores formation and higher DMSO concentrations resulted in membrane destruction. The experiments done in vitro on cells confirmed these results using the following of permeabilization markers. This study has been compared to permeabilization due to a physical agent (electric pulses).Secondly, it is about the development and the use of a new cell exposure device for nanopulses that permit to apply very high electric fields and to observe induced cellular effects simultaneously by microscopy.To finish, this device has been used with nanopulses to generate calcium peaks in mesenchymal stem cells that are presenting spontaneous calcium oscillations in correlation to their differentiation state.. These induced peaks are due to the release of the calcium stored in organelles and/or to plasma membrane permeabilization leading to a intramembrane calcium flux establishment. It is also possible to use microsecond pulses to generate calcium peaks in these cells. In this case, the calcium peaks are due to the plasma membrane permeabilization . By changing the amplitude of the applied electric fields and the presence or the absence of external calcium, it is possible to manipulate cytosolic calcium concentrations by mobilizing internal or external calcium. One feature of these new tools is to be triggered and stopped instantly without reminiscence, unlike chemical molecules permitting the production of calcium peaks. These tools could therefore lead to a better understanding of the involvement of calcium in mechanisms such as differentiation, migration or fertilization.

The thesis presents detailed results of theoretical analyses based on extensive computer simulation studies with an aim to explore, quantify whenever possible, and understand structure and dynamics of polymers and proteins in several complex solvents. In order to make the Thesis coherent, we also study certain aspects of binary mixtures. Based on the phenomena studied, the thesis has been divided into four major parts: I. Dynamics of biological water: Distance dependent variation of dielectric constants in aqueous protein solutions II. Temperature dependent study of structural transformations in aqueous binary mixtures III. Conformation and dynamics of polymers in solution: Role of aqueous binary mixtures IV. Conformational change and unfolding dynamics of proteins: Role of sol-vent environment The above mentioned four parts have further been divided into thirteen chapters. In the following we provide a brief chapter-wise outline of the thesis. Part I consists of two chapters, where we focus on the study of dynamics of biological water and distance dependent variation of static and dynamic proper-ties (including dielectric constant) of water near different proteins. To start with, chapter 1 provides an introduction to the structure and dynamics of biological water. Here we discuss different experimental studies; including dielectric relaxation, NMR and salvation dynamics those explore the bimolecular hydration dynamics in great detail. We also discuss the wide range of computer simulation and theoretical studies that have been carried out to understand the dynamical behaviour of biological water. In chapter 2, we present our molecular dynamics simulation study to ex-plore the distance dependent static and dynamic behaviour of biological water near four different protein surfaces. Proteins are known to have large permanent dipole moments that can influence structure and dynamics of even distant water molecules. Therefore, distance dependence of polarization punctuation can provide important insight into the nature of biological water. We explore these aspects by studying aqueous solutions of four different proteins of different char-acteristics and varying sizes. We find that the calculated dielectric constants of the systems show a noticeable increment in all the cases compared to that of neat water. Total dipole moment auto time correlation function of water is found to be sensitive to the nature of the protein. We also define and calculate the effective dielectric constant of successive layers and find that the layer adjacent to protein always has significantly lower value (∼ 50). However, progressive layers exhibit successive increment of dielectric constant, finally reaching a value close to that of bulk 4–5 layers away. Theoretical analysis providing simple method for calculation of shellwise local dielectric constant and implication of these findings are elaborately discussed in this chapter. Part II deals with the temperature dependent study of aqueous DMSO and ethanol solutions and consists of three chapters. Chapter 3 provides a general introduction to the non-ideality (deviation from Raoult’s law) encountered in different binary mixtures. We discuss different theoretical models for treatment of binary mixtures. Finally we provide a systematic study about the non-ideality observed in aqueous binary mixtures. Here we discuss the anomalies observed in such systems and carry out a brief survey on the existing ideas of structural transformations associated with the solvation of a foreign molecule in water. In chapter 4, we discuss the results of temperature dependent study of struc-tural and dynamic properties of aqueous dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) mixture. It is now well-known that aqueous DMSO mixture exhibits signature of perco-lation driven structural aggregation at a mole fraction range xDMSO ≈ 0.15. We study the structural and dynamical change in this binary mixture below and above the percolation threshold along with decreasing temperature. Significant change in the molecular structure of DMSO as well as that of water is observed above the percolation threshold at a lower temperature, particularly at 200K. The structural arrangement of the DMSO molecules is found to be progressively more ordered with increasing DMSO concentration and decreasing temperature. On the other hand, water structure is found to be significantly deviated from tetrahedral arrangement in presence of DMSO clusters even at low temperature. The dynamics of water is also found to be considerably affected with increase of concentration and lowering of temperature. Similar phenomenon is observed for another amphiphilic molecule, ethanol, and has been discussed in chapter 5. Aqueous ethanol mixture is a widely studied solvent, both experimentally and using computer simulations. All the studies indicate several distinct salvation regimes. In recent molecular dynamics simulation studies, the reason for formation of micro-aggregates of ethanol is again attributed to percolation driven structural transformation. We carry out a temperature dependent study of water-ethanol binary mixture, particularly at low ethanol concentration to understand the molecular origin of such structural transformation. We find that the structural arrangement of ethanol as well as water molecules is similarly affected as that of DMSO with lowering of temperature. However, dynamics of water molecules in aqueous ethanol solution is found to be marginally affected, unlike the case of aqueous DMSO solution. We discuss the microscopic reason for such behaviour in a detailed manner. In Part III, we discuss the dynamics of linear polymer chains in different aqueous binary mixtures. Here we have three chapters. In chapter 6, we carry out a brief survey of the existing theories of polymers in solution. We discuss the quality of solvents depending on the preferred interactions between the polymer and the solvent or the polymer with its own. We also discuss the celebrated Flory-Huggins theory. We derive the expression of free energy of the Flory-Huggins theory in terms of the volume fraction of monomer and solvent molecules. In chapter 7, we discuss the results of our study of polymer dynamics in aqueous DMSO solution. We find that at a mole fraction 0.05 of DMSO (xDMSO ≈ 0.05) in aqueous solution, a linear polymer chain of intermediate length (n=30) adopts collapsed conformation as the most stable conformational state. The same chain exhibits an intermittent oscillation between the collapsed and the extended coiled conformations in neat water. Even when the mole fraction of DMSO in the bulk is 0.05, the concentration of the same in the first hydration layer around the polymer is found to be as large as 17 %. Formation of such hydrophobic environment around the hydrocarbon chain may be viewed as the reason for the collapsed conformation gaining additional stability. We find a second anomalous behaviour to emerge near xDMSO ≈ 0.15 that is attributed to the percolation driven structural aggregation of DMSO that lowers the relative concentration of the DMSO molecules in the hydration layer. In chapter 8, we carry out similar study of linear polymer chain in water– ethanol binary mixture. In this case also, we find a sudden collapse of the poly-merat xEtOH ≈ 0.05. Since ethanol molecules are known to form micro-aggregates in this concentration range, stability of collapsed state of polymer at this con-centration is anticipated to be correlated to this phenomenon. In fact, a purely hydrophobic polymer chain, in its collapsed form is anticipated to assist in the formation of spanning cluster comprised of hydrophobic ethyl groups at this concentration range thereby facilitating the percolation transition. We discuss these prospects in this chapter. Part IV deals with the solvent sensitivity to the conformational change and unfolding dynamics of protein. Part IV consists of five chapters. In chapter 9, we develop an understanding of protein folding and unfolding dynamics by discussing the fundamental theories developed in the last few decades. We also discuss the major role of solvents in stabilizing or destabilizing the native, ordered state. In chapter 10, we present a detailed study of unfolding of a small protein, chicken villin headpiece (HP36) in water-ethanol binary mixture, using molecular dynamics simulations. The prime objective of this work is to explore the sensitivity of protein dynamics towards increasing concentration of the cosolvent and unravel essential features of intermediates formed in the unfolding path-way. In water–ethanol binary mixtures, HP36 is found to unfold partially, under ambient conditions, that otherwise requires temperature as high as ∼ 600K to denature in pure aqueous solvent. The study unravels certain interesting aspects about the pathway of unfolding, guided by the formation of unique intermediates. Unfolding is initiated by the separation of hydrophoic core comprising three phenylalanine residues (Phe7, Phe11, Phe18). This separation initiates the melting of the helix2 of the protein. However, with an increase of cosolvent concentration different partially unfolded intermediates are found to be formed. We attribute the emergence of such partially unfolded states to the preferential solvation of hydrophobic residues by the ethyl groups of ethanol. We explore and subsequently quantify the detailed dynamics of unfolding in water-ethanol that appear to be more complex and sensitive to solvent composition. With an aim to develop a general understanding of the role of water–ethanol binary mixture in facilitating anomalous conformational dynamics of proteins, we carry out combined theoretical and experimental studies to explore detailed structural change of a larger protein, Myoglobin with increasing ethanol concentration. These studies are described in chapter 11. In agreement with our pre-vious observations, we identify in this case two well-defined structural regimes, one at xEtOH ≈ 0.05 and the other at xEtOH ≈ 0.25, characterized by formation of distinct partially folded conformations and separated by a unique partially unfolded intermediate state at xEtOH ≈ 0.15. We also find non-monotonic com-position dependence of (i) radius of gyration (ii) long range contact order (iii) residue specific solvent accessible surface area of tryptophan (iv) circular dichro-ism spectra and UV-absorption peaks. Multiple structural transformations, well-known in water-ethanol binary mixture, appear to have considerably stronger effects on the conformation and dynamics of protein Myoglobin. In chapter 12, we explore the free energy surface of unfolding pathway through umbrella sampling, for the small globular alpha-helical protein chicken-villin headpiece (HP36) in three different solvent conditions (water, xDMSO ≈ 0.15 and xDMSO ≈ 0.3). Recently established as a facilitator of helix melting, DMSO is found to be a good denaturant for HP36 and at a mole fraction of xDMSO ≈ 0.3, complete melting of the protein is ensured. The unfolding proceeds through initial separation or melting of the same aggregated hydrophobic core that com-prises three phenylalanine residues (Phe7, Phe11 and Phe18) accompanied by simultaneous melting of the helix2. Unfolding is found to be a multistage process involving crossing of three consecutive minima and two barriers at the initial stage. At a molecular level, Phe18 is observed to reorient itself towards other hy-drophobic grooves to stabilize the intermediate states. We identify the configuration of intermediates in all the solvent conditions which are found to be unique for the corresponding minima with similar structural arrangement. Consider-able softening of the barriers is observed with increasing DMSO concentration. Higher concentration of DMSO tunes the unfolding pathway by destabilizing the third minimum and stabilizing the second one, indicating the development of solvent modified, less rugged pathway. Chapter 13 provides a detailed microscopic mechanism of DMSO induced unfolding of HP36. We analyze the free energy contours of the protein HP36, obtained from molecular dynamics simulation in xDMSO ≈ 0.15 and xDMSO ≈ 0.3. The most probable intermediates obtained from the free energy contours are found to be similar to those obtained from umbrella sampling which again sup-ports the fact that the melting proceeds through formation of a series of unique intermediates. We characterize the preferential hydrophobic salvation of the hydrophobic core that drives the melting of secondary structure, by calculating time dependent radial distribution function and identifying the formation of strong orientation order between methyl groups of DMSO and phenyl alanine residues. Finally we employ Kramer’s rate equation to calculate the rate of bar-rier crossing that reveals significantly faster rate of unfolding with increasing DMSO concentration that is in agreement with simulation results. Whenever possible, we have discussed the scope of future work at the end of each chapter.

In elektrochemischen Zellen vollziehen sich die Haupteaktionen in der Regel an Oberflächen von Elektroden und Katalysatoren und deren Elektrolytgrenzflächen, wodurch Änderungen dort die Effizienz der Zelle stark beeinflussen können. Diese Arbeit behandelt elementare Prozesse an solchen Ober- und Grenzflächen, die die Bandstruktur und damit möglicherweise auch die Reaktivität des Systems verändern. Mit Zwei-Photonen-Photoelektronenspektroskopie (2PPE) untersuche ich solche Prozesse in drei Modellsystemen für Elektrodenoberflächen beziehungsweise Elektrolyt/Elektroden-Grenzflächen: ZnO wird als Material für die photoelektrochemische Wasserspaltung diskutiert. In zeitaufgelösten 2PPE-Spektren beobachte ich Oszillationen des Dipols der (10-10)-Oberfläche, die bislang unbekannten kohärenten Oberflächenphononen zuzuordnen sind. Ich diskutiere ihre Erzeugung und entwickle eine Methode, um ultraschnelle Änderungen des Oberflächendipols anhand der Intensität des Sekundärelektronenschwanzes eines 2PPE Spektrums zu quantifizieren. An der D2O/ZnO(10-10)-Grenzfläche untersuche ich mehrere Effekte der Wasseradsorption, wie Veränderungen der Austrittsarbeit und der kohärenten Oberflächenphononen. Anders als in früheren Studien stelle ich keine Oberflächenmetallisierung durch Wasseradsorption fest. Auch gibt es keinen klaren Hinweis auf Elektronensolvatisierung, wie sie an Wasser/Metall-Grenzflächen zu beobachten ist. An der DMSO/Cu(111)-Grenzfläche, einem Modellsystem der Elektrolyt/Kathoden-Grenzfläche in Metall-Luft-Batterien, bestimme ich die elementaren Schritte der Sauerstoffreduktion. Im DMSO werden kleine Polaronen ultraschnell gebildet und zum Teil in Oberflächendefekten eingefangen. Die Lebensdauer dieser gefangenen Elektronen kann mehrere Sekunden betragen. Sie reagieren mit co-adsorbiertem O2, nachdem es in das DMSO diffundiert ist, zu O2-. Die Modellierung der Diffusion liefert eine Abschätzung des Elektroden-Reaktanten-Abstandes für Elektronentransfer in DMSO. / In electrochemical cells, the main reactions usually proceed at the surfaces of electrodes and catalysts and their interfaces with the electrolyte. Hence, changes there can have a huge impact on the efficiency of the cell. This thesis concerns elementary processes at such surfaces and interfaces, which affect the electronic band structure and, thus, potentially the reactivity of the surface. Using two-photon photoelectron spectroscopy (2PPE), I investigate such processes in three model systems for electrode surfaces and electrolyte/electrode interfaces: ZnO is discussed as material for photoelectrochemical water splitting. In time-resolved 2PPE spectra, I observe oscillations of the (10-10) surface dipole, which are assigned to previously unknown coherent surface phonons. I discuss their generation and develop a method to quantify ultrafast surface dipole changes from the intensity of the secondary electron tail of a 2PPE spectrum. At the D2O/ZnO(10-10) interface, I examine several effects of water adsorption, such as changes of the work function and the coherent surface phonons. Unlike in a previous study, I do not observe surface metallization upon water adsorption. Moreover, there is no clear indication of electron solvation as found at water/metal interfaces. At the DMSO/Cu(111) interface, a model system for the electrolyte/cathode interface in metal-air batteries, I determine the elementary steps of superoxide formation. In the DMSO, small polarons are formed and partly trapped in surface defects on an ultrafast time scale. These trapped electrons can persist for several seconds and react with co-adsorbed O2 to from O2-. Modelling the diffusion yields estimates for the electrode-reactant distance for electron transfer in DMSO.

I started writing this thesis not only to obtain a doctoral degree, but also to compile in a particular way all the work that I have done during this time. The articles published during these years can only give a short overview of my research task. I decided to give my own perspective of the things I have learned and the results I have obtained. Some sections are directly the published articles, but some other are not and contain a significant amount of unpublished data. Even in some cases the published plots have been modified / altered to provide more insight or to maintain consistency. Historical perspectives often provide a deep understanding of the problems and have been briefly discussed in some chapters. This thesis contains theoretical and computer simulation studies to under-stand effects of spatial correlation on dynamics in several complex systems. Based on the different phenomena studied, the thesis has been divided into three major parts: I. Pair hydrophobicity, composition-dependent anomalies and structural trans-formations in aqueous binary mixtures II. Microscopic analysis of hydrophobic force law in a two dimensional (2D) water-like model system III. Diffusion of a tagged particle on a rugged energy landscape with spatial correlations The three parts have been further divided into ten chapters. In the following we provide part-wise and chapter-wise outline of the thesis. Part I consists of six chapters, where we focus on several important aqueous binary mixtures of amphiphilic molecules. To start with, Chapter 1 provides an introduction to non-ideality often encountered in aqueous binary mixtures. Here we briefly discuss the existing ideas of structural transformations associated with solvation of a foreign molecule in water, with particular emphasis on the classic “iceberg” model. Over the last decade, several investigations, especially neutron scattering and diffraction experiments, have questioned the validity of existing theories and have given rise to an alternate molecular picture involving micro aggregation of amphiphilic co-solvents in their aqueous binary mixtures. Such microheterogeneity was also supported by other experiments and simulations. In Chapter 2, we present our calculation of the separation dependence of potential of mean force (PMF) between two methane molecules in water-dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) mixture, using constrained molecular dynamics simulation. It helps us to understand the composition-dependence of pair hydrophobicity in this binary solvent. We find that pair hydrophobicity in the medium is surprisingly enhanced at DMSO mole fraction xDMSO ≈ 0.15, which explains several anomalous properties of this binary mixture – including the age-old mystery of DMSO being a protein stabilizer at lower concentration and protein destabilizer at higher concentration. Chapter 3 starts with discussion of non-monotonic composition dependence of several other properties in water-DMSO binary mixture, like diffusion coefficient, local composition fluctuation and fluctuations in total dipole moment of the system. All these properties exhibit weak to strong anomalies at low solute concentration. We attempt to provide a physical interpretation of such anomalies. Previous analyses often suggested occurrence of a “structural transformation” (or, microheterogeneity) in aqueous binary mixtures of amphiphilic molecules. We show that this structural transformation can be characterized and better understood under the purview of percolation theory. We define the self-aggregates of DMSO as clusters. Analysis of fractal dimension and cluster size distribution with reference to corresponding “universal” scaling exponents, combined with calculation of weight-averaged fraction of largest cluster and cluster size weight average, reveal a percolation transition of the clusters of DMSO in the anomalous concentration range. The percolation threshold appears at xDMSO ≈ 0.15. The molecular picture suggests that DMSO molecules form segregated islands or micro-aggregates at concentrations below the percolation threshold. Close to the critical concentration, DMSO molecules start forming a spanning cluster which gives rise to a bi-continuous phase (of water-rich region and DMSO-rich region) beyond the threshold of xDMSO ≈ 0.15. This percolation transition might be responsible for composition-dependent anomalies of the binary mixture in this low concentration regime. Similar phenomenon is observed for another amphiphilic molecule – ethanol, as discussed in Chapter 4. We again find composition dependent anomalies in several thermophysical properties, such as local composition fluctuation, radial distribution function of ethyl groups and self-diffusion co-efficient of ethanol. Earlier experiments often suggested distinct structural regimes in water-ethanol mixture at different concentrations. Using the statistical mechanical techniques introduced in the previous chapter, we show that ethanol clusters undergo a percolation transition in the anomalous concentration range. Despite the lack of a precise determination of the percolation threshold, estimate lies in the ethanol mole fraction range xEtOH ≈ 0.075 - 0.10. This difficulty is probably due to transient nature of the clusters (as will be discussed in Chapter 6) and finite size of the system. The scaling of ethanol cluster size distribution and the fractal behavior of ethanol clusters, however, conclusively demonstrate their “spanning” nature. To develop a unified understanding, we further study the composition-dependent anomalies and structural transformations in another amphiphilic molecule, tertiary butyl alcohol (TBA) in Chapter 5. Similar to the above-mentioned aqueous binary mixtures of DMSO and ethanol, we demonstrate here that the anomalies occur due to local structural changes involving self-aggregation of TBA molecules and percolation transition of TBA clusters at xTBA ≈ 0.05. At this percolation threshold, we observe a lambda-type divergence in the fluctuation of the size of the largest TBA cluster, reminiscent of a critical point. Interestingly, water molecules themselves exhibit a reverse percolation transition at higher TBA concentration ≈ 0.45, where large spanning water clusters now break-up into small clusters. This is accompanied by significant divergence of the fluctuations in the size of the largest water cluster. This second transition gives rise to another set of anomalies around. We conclude this part of the thesis with Chapter 6, where we introduce a novel method for understanding the stability of fluctuating clusters of DMSO, ethanol and TBA in their respective aqueous binary mixtures. We find that TBA clusters are the most stable, whereas ethanol clusters are the most transient among the three representative amphiphilic co-solvents. This correlates well with the amplitude of anomalies observed in these three binary mixtures. Part II deals with the topic of hydrophobic force law in water. In the introductory Chapter 7 of this part, we briefly discuss the concept of hydrophobicity which is believed to be of importance in understanding / explaining the initial processes involved in protein folding. We also discuss the experimental observations of Israelachvili (on the force between hydrophobic plates) and the empirical hydrophobic force law. We briefly touch upon the theoretical back-ground, including Lum-Chandler-Weeks theory. We conclude this chapter with a brief account of relevant and important in silico studies so far. In Chapter 8, we present our studies on Mercedes-Benz (MB) model – a two dimensional model system where circular disks interact with an anisotropic potential. This model was introduced by Ben-Naim and was later parametrized by Dill and co-workers to reproduce many of the anomalous properties of water. Using molecular dynamics simulation, we show that hydrophobic force law is indeed observed in MB model, with a correlation length of ξ=3.79. The simplicity of the model enables us to unravel the underlying physics that leads to this long range force between hydrophobic plates. In accordance with Lum-Chandler-Weeks theory, density fluctuation of MB particles (leading to cavitation) between the hydrophobic rods is clearly distinguishable – but it is not sufficiently long ranged, with density correlation extending only up to ζ=2.45. We find that relative orientation of MB molecules plays an important role in the origin of the hydrophobic force in long range. We define appropriate order parameters to capture the role of orientation, and briefly discuss a plausible approach of an orientation-dependent theory to explain this phenomenon. Part III consists of two chapters and focuses on the diffusion of a Brownian particle on a Gaussian random energy landscape. We articulate the rich history of the problem in the introductory Chapter 9. Despite broad applicability and historical importance of the problem, we have little knowledge about the effect of ruggedness on diffusion at a quantitative level. Every study seems to use the expression of Zwanzig [Proc. Natl. Acad. U.S.A, 85, 2029 (1988)] who derived the effective diffusion coefficient, Deff =D0 exp (-β2ε2 )for a Gaussian random surface with variance ε, but validity of the same has never been tested rigorously. In Chapter 10, we introduce two models of Gaussian random energy surface – a discrete lattice and a continuous field. Using computer simulation and theoretical analyses, we explore many different aspects of the diffusion process. We show that the elegant expression of Zwanzig can be reproduced ex-actly by Rosenfeld diffusion-entropy scaling relationship. Our simulations show that Zwanzig’s expression overestimates diffusion in the uncorrelated Gaussian random lattice – differing even by more than an order of magnitude at moderately high ruggedness (ε>3.0). The disparity originates from the presence of “three-site traps” (TST) on the landscape – which are formed by deep minima flanked by high barriers on either side. Using mean first passage time (MFPT) formalism, we derive an expression for the effective diffusion coefficient, Deff =D0 exp ( -β2ε2)[1 +erf (βε/2)]−1 in the presence of TSTs. This modified expression reproduces the simulation results accurately. Further, in presence of spatial correlation we derive a general expression, which reduces to Zwanzig’s form in the limit of infinite spatial correlation and to the above-mentioned equation in absence of correlation. The Gaussian random field has an inherent spatial correlation. Diffusion coefficient obtained from the Gaussian field – both by simulations and analytical methods – establish the effect of spatial correlation on random walk. We make special note of the fact that presence of TSTs at large ruggedness gives rise to an apparent breakdown of ergodicity of the type often encountered in glassy liquids. We characterize the same using non-Gaussian order parameter, and show that this “breakdown” scales with ruggedness following an asymptotic power law. We have discussed the scope of future work at the end of each chapter when-ever appropriate.

Il a récemment été démontré que la glace de mer antarctique pouvait jouer un rôle significatif dans la dynamique des gaz à effet climatique (dont le dimethylsulfure ou DMS) dans les régions polaires. Ce travail s’est d’abord attaché à la mise au point d’une méthode de mesure fiable du diméthylsulfoxyde (DMSO) dans la glace de mer, supprimant les interférences générées par la production de DMS au sein de l’échantillon en réponse au choc osmotique subi lors de la fonte de l’échantillon de glace. Une procédure de détermination séquentielle du DMS, par broyage à sec, puis du dimethylsulfoniopropionate (DMSP) et du DMSO sur le même échantillon de glace a été développée et utilisée à large échelle dans ce travail. Les données du présent travail ont été acquises dans le cadre de deux programmes d’observation intégrés menés sur la glace de mer antarctique à des saisons différentes mais avec une méthodologie commune :1) choix de sites d’étude homogènes afin de minimiser l’impact de la variabilité spatiale sur l’interprétation des résultats dans une optique d’évolution temporelle et 2) priorité à la caractérisation du cadre physico-chimique (texture, température, salinité, couvert de neige, susceptibilité au drainage des saumures,….) avant toute autre analyse. L’étude menée dans le cadre du programme ISPOL (nov.–dec. 2004) a permis d’observer que la stratification des saumures a un impact positif sur la conversion du DMSP en DMS au sein de la glace mais ralentit les flux de DMS et DMSP vers l’océan. Le couvert de glace est caractérisé à cette période de l’année par une perte nette de DMSP et génère des flux combiné de DMS et DMSP du même ordre de grandeur que les flux de DMS atmosphériques mesurés dans le cadre d’autres études. L’étude menée dans le cadre du programme SIMBA (sept.–oct. 2007) a permis de mettre en évidence l’importance du forçage atmosphérique sur le régime thermique et la dynamique du DMS/P/O dans la glace. Les communautés d’algues de surface produisent de fortes concentrations de DMS/P/O en réponse au stress thermique, osmotique et potentiellement radiatif durant les périodes de refroidissement et la mise en place d’un régime soutenu de drainage des saumures contribue à évacuer périodiquement les hautes concentrations de DMS/P/O produites dans la glace vers l’océan sous-jacent. Le couvert de glace affichant une production nette de DMS/P/O à cette période de l’année génère des flux combinés de DMS et DMSP plus de dix fois supérieurs à ceux observés pour la glace estivale. L’étude menée sur de la glace artificielle a permis de mettre en évidence l’impact des processus physico-chimiques sur la signature en gaz de la glace en croissance constituant un premier pas vers la modélisation des transports de gaz dans la glace de mer et leurs échanges au travers des interfaces glace-océan et glace-atmosphère. <p><p><p>SUMMARY - It has recently been demonstrated that Antarctic sea ice recently demonstrated plays a potentially significant role in the dynamics of climatically significant gases (amongst which dimethylsulphide or DMS) in Polar Regions. This research work has initially focused on the development of a reliable method for the determination of dimethylsulphoxide (DMSO) within sea ice, avoiding interferences generated by DMS production within the sample in response to the osmotic shock caused by melting. A sequential determination procedure of DMS, dimethlsulphoniopropionate (DMSP) and DMSO on the same ice sample has been developed and used on a large amount of samples in the present work. Data presented in this research project have been collected in the framework of two integrated sea ice observation programs focused on Antarctic sea ice at different seasons but following a common approach: 1) choice of homogeneous study sites to minimize the impact of spatial variability on the interpretation of the results in a time series perspective and 2) priority given to the characterization of the physicochemical framework (texture, temperature, salinity, snow cover, susceptibility to brine drainage,…) prior to any other study. The study conducted in the framework of the ISPOL experiment (Nov.–Dec. 2004) demonstrated that stratification of the brine inclusions network positively influenced the conversion of DMSP into DMS but decreased fluxes of DMS and DMSP towards the ocean. The ice cover at that time of the year is characterised by a net DMSP loss and generates combined DMS and DMSP fluxes whose values fall in the range of atmospheric DMS flux from sea ice measured in the frame of other studies. The study conducted in the framework of the SIMBA experiment (sept.–oct. 2007) emphasized the importance of atmospheric thermal forcing on the sea ice thermal regime and DMS/P/O dynamics. The surface community of algae produced elevated levels of DMS/P/O in response to thermal, osmotic and potentially radiative stress during periods of atmospheric cooling while the development of an intense brine drainage regime contributed to periodically release the elevated levels of DMS/P/O produced in the sea ice towards the underlying ocean. The ice cover exhibited at that time of the year a net production of DMS/P/O and produced combined DMS and DMSP fluxes more than ten times higher than those observed for summer sea ice. The study conducted on laboratory prepared growing sea ice emphasised the impact of physicochemical processes on the gas signature of growing sea ice and represents a first step towards modelling gas exchanges within sea ice and across its interfaces with the ocean and the atmosphere.<p> / Doctorat en Sciences agronomiques et ingénierie biologique / info:eu-repo/semantics/nonPublished