Innovative Lösungsprinzipien auf andere Lebens- und Wirtschaftsbereiche zu übertragen, ist eine sich wiederholende Herausforderung in Wissenschaft und Praxis. In der vorliegenden Arbeit werden Kooperationsphänomene der Erwerbs- und Bedarfswirtschaften thematisiert. Es wird der Frage nachgegangen, ob die Gestalt und Organisation eines Kooperationsphänomens systematisch mit deskriptiv-analytischen Untersuchungsmethoden (Systemtheorie und Morphologie) beschrieben und bereichsübergreifend, unter Einbeziehung individueller Besonderheiten, übertragen werden kann. Das Vorhaben wird als Analogiebildung verstanden. Ein Schema zur Analogiebildung für Kooperationsphänomene wird entwickelt. Zur Validierung des Schemas wird als Analogiequelle das Organisationskonzept der Zwei-Ebenen-Kooperation ausgewählt, welches ursprünglich für Produktionsnetze konzipiert wurde und sich insbesondere auf Klein- und Mikrounternehmen ausrichtet. Als Empfänger wird der Bereich der dezentralen Energieversorgung festgelegt, in dem sich verstärkt kooperative Organisationsformen einer selbstbestimmten, kooperativen und bürgernahen dezentralen Energieversorgung herausbilden. Auf der Grundlage der Analogiebetrachtung aus dem Bereich der Produktionsnetze wird ein neuartiges, kooperatives Organisationskonzept für die dezentrale Energieversorgung entworfen. Die Arbeit wird damit interessant für alle, die an einer systematischen Übertragung von Wissen zur Gestalt und Organisation von Kooperationsphänomenen und der Ausgestaltung eines kooperativen Organisationskonzeptes für die dezentrale Energieversorgung interessiert sind.

A l'heure actuelle, l'industrie représente environ le tiers de la consommation énergétique et des émissions de CO2. Des opportunités substantielles existent pour faire face aux enjeux environnementaux et économiques, passant par l'efficacité énergétique en général et l'utilisation de l'énergie, en particulier dans les parcs industriels. Les Systèmes à Energie Distribuée (SED) correspondent en ce sens à une solution courante et prometteuse. Nous avons donc entrepris une démarche d'approche globale de site, incluant l'agrégation de l'ensemble des variables énergétiques, économiques, environnementales et managériales influentes dans une installation de ce type. Une mise en application sur une installation pilote et sa validation ont permis d'identifier les verrous scientifiques et techniques et de mesurer pertinence et efficacité des éléments et modes opératoires des systèmes en mode stationnaire. Cette étude offre une méthode d'utilisation coopérative des indicateurs des domaines impactés et ouvre également des perspectives sur des développements en mode dynamique à des fins d'aide à la conduite optimale. / Nowadays, industry accounts for about one third of energy consumption and CO2 emissions. Substantial opportunities exist to address environmental and economic challenges, including energy efficiency in general and the use of energy, especially in industrial parks. Distributed Energy Systems (DES) correspond in this sense to a common and promising solution. We have therefore undertaken a global site approach, including the aggregation of all influential energy, economic, environmental and managerial variables in an installation of this type. Implementation on a pilot plant and its validation have made it possible to identify the scientific and technical locks and to measure the relevance and efficiency of the elements and stationary operating modes of the systems. This study offers a method of cooperative use of the indicators of impacted domains and also opens perspectives on developments in dynamic mode for the purposes of optimum driving assistance.

Energy systems across the globe are going through a radical transformation as a result of technological and institutional changes, depletion of fossil fuel resources, and climate change. Accordingly, local energy initiatives are emerging and increasing number of the business models are focusing on the end-users. This requires the present centralized energy systems to be re-organized. In this context, Integrated community energy systems (ICESs) are emerging as a modern development to re-organize local energy systems allowing simultaneous integration of distributed energy resources (DERs) and engagement of local communities. With the emergence of ICESs new roles and responsibilities as well as interactions and dynamics are expected in the energy system. Although local energy initiatives such as ICESs are rapidly emerging due to community objectives, such as cost and emission reductions as well as resiliency, assessment and evaluation of the value that these systems can provide to both local communities and the whole energy system are still lacking. The value of ICESs is also impacted by the institutional settings internal and external to the system. With this background, this thesis aims to understand the ways in which ICESs can contribute to enhancing the energy transition. This thesis utilizes a conceptual framework consisting of institutional and societal levels in order to understand the interaction and dynamics of ICESs implementation.  Current energy trends and the associated technological, socio-economic, environmental and institutional issues are reviewed. The developed ICES model performs optimal planning and operation of ICESs and assesses their performance based on economic and environmental metrics. For the considered community size and local conditions, grid-connected ICESs are already beneficial to the alternative of solely being supplied from the grid, both in terms of total energy costs and CO2 emissions, whereas grid-defected systems, although performing very well in terms of CO2 emissions reduction, are still rather expensive. ICESs ensure self-provision of energy and can provide essential system services to the larger energy system. This thesis has demonstrated the added value of ICESs to the individual households, local communities and the society. A comprehensive institutional design considering techno-economic and institutional perspectives is necessary to ensure effective contribution of ICESs in the energy transition. / Energisystem över hela världen går igenom en radikal omvandling till följd av tekniska och institutionella förändringar, utarmning av fossila bränsleresurser och klimatförändringar. Följaktligen växer lokala energiinitiativ fram och ett ökande antal affärsmodeller fokuserar på slutanvändarna. Detta förutsätter att de nuvarande centraliserade energisystemen omorganiseras. I det här sammanhanget utvecklas integrerade samhällsenergisystem (ICES) som en modern utveckling för att omorganisera lokala energisystem som möjliggör samtidig integration av distribuerade energiresurser och engagemang från lokala samhällen. Med framväxten av ICES nya roller och ansvarsområden samt interaktioner och dynamik förväntas i energisystemet. Även om lokala energiinitiativ som ICES snabbt framträder på grund av samhällsmål, såsom kostnad och utsläppsminskningar samt resiliens, bedömning och utvärdering av det värde som dessa system kan ge till både lokala samhällen och hela energisystemet saknas fortfarande. Värdet av ICES-värden påverkas också av de institutionella inställningarna internt och externt för systemet. Med denna bakgrund syftar denna avhandling till att förstå hur ICES kan bidra till att förbättra energiövergången. Denna avhandling använder en konceptuell ram som består av institutionella och samhälleliga nivåer för att förstå samspelet och dynamiken i ICES-genomförandet. Nuvarande energitrender och de därtill hörande tekniska, socioekonomiska, miljömässiga och institutionella frågorna ses över. Den utvecklade ICES-modellen utför optimal planering och drift av ICES och bedömer deras prestanda baserat på ekonomiska och miljömässiga mätvärden. För den ansedda samhällsstorleken och lokala förhållandena är nätanslutna ICES redan fördelaktiga jämfört med alternativet att endast försörjas från nätet, både när det gäller totala energikostnader och koldioxidutsläpp, medan nät-defekterade system, även om de fungerar väldigt bra i termer av minskningen av koldioxidutsläppen fortfarande är ganska dyra. ICES garanterar självförsörjning av energi och kan tillhandahålla viktiga systemtjänster till det större energisystemet. Denna avhandling har visat mervärdet av ICES till de enskilda hushållen, lokalsamhällena och samhället. En omfattande institutionell utformning med hänsyn till de tekno-ekonomiska och institutionella perspektiven är nödvändigt för att säkerställa ett effektivt bidrag från ICES i energiövergången. / Los sistemas energéticos en todo el mundo atraviesan una transformación radical como resultado de cambios tecnológicos e institucionales, el agotamiento de combustibles fósiles y el cambio climático. Por consiguiente, las iniciativas locales de energía están surgiendo y los modelos de negocio se centran cada vez más en los usuarios finales. Esto requiere la reorganización de los actuales sistemas energéticos centralizados. En este contexto, los sistemas integrados de energía comunitaria (ICES, por sus siglas en inglés) están emergiendo como un desarrollo moderno para reorganizar los sistemas energéticos locales, permitiendo la integración simultánea de los recursos energéticos distribuidos y la participación de las comunidades locales. Con la aparición de ICESs se esperan nuevos roles y responsabilidades, así como interacciones y dinámicas, en el sistema energético. Aunque las iniciativas locales en materia de energía, como las ICESs, están surgiendo rápidamente debido a los objetivos de la comunidad, tales como la reducción de costos y emisiones, así como la resiliencia, y la evaluación, siguen careciendo del valor que estos sistemas pueden brindar tanto a las comunidades locales como a todo el sistema energético. El valor de los ICESs también se ve afectado por los entornos institucionales tanto internos como externos al sistema. Con este trasfondo, esta tesis pretende comprender las formas en que los ICESs pueden contribuir a mejorar la transición energética. Esta tesis utiliza un marco conceptual que consiste en niveles institucionales y sociales para comprender la interacción y dinámica de la implementación de los ICESs.  Además, esta tesis revisa las tendencias actuales de energía y los problemas tecnológicos, socioeconómicos, ambientales e institucionales asociados. La tesis desarrolla un modelo que optimiza la planificación y el funcionamiento óptimos de ICESs y evalúa su funcionamiento basado en métricas económicas y ambientales. Para el tamaño de la comunidad y las condiciones locales consideradas, los ICESs conectados a la red ya son beneficiosos tanto en términos de costos totales de energía como de emisiones de CO2 comparado con la alternativa de ser suministrados únicamente desde la red, mientras que los sistemas aislados y desconectados de la red, aunque desempeñándose muy bien en términos de reducción emisiones de CO2, siguen siendo bastante más costosos. Los ICESs garantizan el autoabastecimiento de energía y pueden proporcionar servicios esenciales al resto del sistema energético. Esta tesis demuestra el valor añadido de los ICESs a los hogares individuales, las comunidades locales y la sociedad. Un diseño integral que considere las perspectivas tecno-económicas e institucionales es necesario para asegurar la contribución efectiva de los ICESs en la transición energética. / Energiesystemen over de hele wereld gaan door een radicale transformatie als gevolg van technologische en institutionele veranderingen, uitputting van fossiele brandstoffen en klimaatverandering. Bijgevolg komen lokale energie-initiatieven op en richten steeds meer verdienmodellen zich op de eindgebruikers. Dit vereist dat de huidige gecentraliseerde energiesystemen opnieuw worden georganiseerd. In deze context komen geïntegreerde energiegemeenschapssystemen (ICESs) op als een moderne ontwikkeling om lokale energiesystemen te reorganiseren, welke gelijktijdige integratie van lokale energiebronnen en betrokkenheid van lokale gemeenschappen mogelijk maakt. Het wordt verwacht dat de opkomst van ICESs zowel nieuwe rollen en verantwoordelijkheden met zich meebrengt. Hoewel lokale energie-initiatieven zoals ICESs snel opkomen door de  doelstellingen van de gemeenschap, zoals kosten- en emissiereducties en veerkracht, schort het nog steeds aan beoordeling en evaluatie van de waarde die deze systemen kunnen hebben voor zowel de lokale gemeenschappen als het hele energiesysteem. De waarde van ICESs wordt ook beïnvloed door de institutionele kenmerken binnen en buiten het systeem. Met deze achtergrond beoogt dit proefschrift te begrijpen op welke manieren de ICESs kunnen bijdragen aan de verbetering van de energietransitie. Dit proefschrift maakt gebruik van een conceptueel raamwerk bestaande uit institutionele en maatschappelijke niveaus om de interactie en dynamiek van de implementatie van de ICES te begrijpen. De huidige energietrends en de bijbehorende technologische, sociaal-economische, milieu- en institutionele problemen worden beoordeeld. Het ontwikkelde ICES-model voert optimale planning en gebruik van ICESs uit en beoordeelt hun prestaties op basis van economische en milieu-indicatoren. Voor de beschouwde gemeenschapsgrootte en lokale omstandigheden zijn  op het net aangesloten ICESs al voordelig ten opzichte van het alternatief waarbij uitsluitend vanuit het net wordt geleverd, zowel wat betreft de totale energiekosten als de CO2-uitstoot, terwijl de grid-defected systemen, hoewel heel goed presterend in termen van CO2-emissiereductie, nog steeds vrij duur zijn. ICESs zorgen voor zelfvoorziening van energie en kunnen essentiële systeemdiensten leveren aan het grotere energiesysteem. Dit proefschrift heeft de toegevoegde waarde van ICESs voor de individuele huishoudens, lokale gemeenschappen en de samenleving aangetoond. Een uitgebreid institutioneel ontwerp met inachtneming van techno-economische en institutionele perspectieven is nodig om de effectieve bijdrage van de ICESs in de energietransitie te waarborgen. / <p>QC 20170911</p> / Sustainable Energy Technologies and Strategies

Models and simulators have been widely used in urban contexts for many decades. The drawback of most current models is that they are normally designed for specific objectives, so the elements considered are limited and they do not take into account the potential synergies between related systems. The necessity of a framework to model complex smart city systems with a comprehensive smart city model has been remarked by many authors. Therefore, this PhD thesis presents: i) a general conceptual framework for the modelling of energy related activities in smart cities, based on determining the spheres of influence and intervention areas within the city, and on identifying agents and potential synergies among systems, and ii) the development of a holistic energy model of a smart city for the assessment of different courses of action, given its geo-location, regulatory and technical constraints, and current energy markets. This involves the creation of an optimization model that permits the optimal planning and operation of energy resources within the city. In addition, several analyses were carried out to explore different hypothesis for the smart city energy model, including: a)      an assessment of the importance of including network thermal constraints in the planning and operation of DER systems at a low voltage distribution level, b)      an analysis of aggregator’s market modelling approaches and the impact on prices due to DER aggregation levels, and c)      an analysis of synergies between different systems in a smart city context. Some of the main findings are: It is sensible to not consider network thermal constraints in the planning of DER systems. Results showed that the benefit decrement of considering network constraints was approximatively equivalent to the cost of reinforcing the network when necessary after planning without considering network constraints. The level of aggregation affects the planning and overall benefits of DER systems. Also, price-maker approaches could be more appropriate for the planning and operation of energy resources for medium to large aggregation sizes, but could be unnecessary for small sizes, with low expected impact on the market price. Synergies between different energy systems exist in an interconnected smart city context. Results showed that the overall benefits of a joint management of systems were greater than those of the independently managed systems. Lastly, the smart city energy model was applied to a case study simulating a real smart city implementation, considering five real districts in the southern area of Madrid, Spain. This analysis allowed to assess the potential benefits of the implementation of a real smart city programme, and showed how the proposed smart city energy model could be used for the planning of pilot projects. To the best of our knowledge, such a smart city energy model and modelling framework had not been developed and applied yet, and no economic results in terms of the potential benefits of such a smart city initiative had been previously reported. / <p>QC 20171010</p>

The requirement for affordable, secure and sustainable energy production is a pressing global challenge and the production of electricity with low carbon emissions is crucial. This usually entails large quantities of renewable energy generation, which is intermittent and often highly distributed throughout the electricity supply system. One of the proposed schemes to manage such generation is the smart grid, the transition to which forms the context for this research. The aim is to investigate the effect of certain psychological and social influences on the adoption of technology necessary to enable smart grids, in order to understand the implications for effective energy policy. In particular, the case of photovoltaic (PV) system adoption in the UK is studied. Empirical data detailing PV installations registered for the Feed in Tariff is analysed in order to understand rates of adoption and how they vary across both time and space. This analysis is combined with a review of policy intervention and literature from psychology to understand drivers for adoption among householders. The results from this study are then used to inform the design of an Agent Based Model of technology adoption within the smart grid context. The decision making of householders is modelled using an algorithm based on Social Cognitive Theory. The model is used to simulate different conditions and generate adoption scenarios in order to understand the potential effects of different parameters on adoption rates. In order to combine the analysis resulting from these methods, the multi-level perspective on transition in socio-technical systems is used to understand how a transition to a smart grid could be described and how adoption of PV in the UK under the Feed in Tariff incentive fits into such a transition. The results show that whilst economic incentive policies have had success in some areas adoption is also dependent on many non-financial parameters. Simulations show that the observability of adoption and the perceived inconvenience or urgency of adoption can have dramatic effects on rates of adoption, in some cases outweighing the rational economic effects of financial incentives. The implication for smart grid related policy is that non-financial factors should be taken into account as well as the more typical financial considerations in efforts to encourage adoption of necessary enabling technology by householders. The models developed could be used in further work to examine in detail adoption of other technologies such as smart home energy management systems and the interaction between adoption rates of multiple smart technologies.

Liberalized electricity markets, increased awareness of clean energy resources and theirdecreasing costs have resulted in large numbers of distributed power generators beinginstalled on distribution network. Installation of distributed generation has altered thepassive nature of distribution grid. A concept of Active Distribution Network is proposedwhich will enable present day infrastructure to host renewable energy resources reliably.Fault management that includes fault localization, isolation and service restoration ispart of active management of distribution networks.This thesis aims to introduce a distributed protection methodology for fault localizationand isolation. The objective is to enhance reliability of the network. Faults are identifiedbased on root mean square values of current measurements and by comparing thesevalues with preset thresholds. The method based on multi-agent concept can be usedto locate the faulty section of a distribution network and for selection of faulty phases.The nodal Bus Agent controls breakers that are associated with it. Based on indicationof fault, adjacent bus Agents communicate with each other to identify location of fault.A trip signal is then issued to corresponding Breakers in adjacent Bus Agents, isolatingthe faulty section of line. A case study was carried out to verify suitability of the proposedmethod. A meshed network model and multi-agent based protection scheme wassimulated in Simulink SimPowerSystems. Considering nature of Distribution Network,separate breakers for each phase are considered. The distribution network protectionsystem identified fault introduced in the network correctly along with interrupting thefault current.Keywords

Virtual Power Plant (VPP) is a concept that aggregate Distributed Energy Resources (DER) together, aims to overcome the capacity limits of single DER and the intermit-ted natural characteristics of renewable energy sources like wind and solar. The whole system can be viewed as a single large-capacity power plant from the system‘s point of view. In this project, the literature review of VPP concept, architecture, existed project and the survey of VPP in Sweden are being conducted first. Secondly, the simplified VPP model is built on MATLAB/Simulink software. The simplified system contains a wind farm, a hydro power plant, a dynamic system load and an infinite bus representing the large transmission grid. During the simulation process, the generation and consump-tion unites are running according to the real history data located in external database. In the third place, optimized control schemes for the hydro unit in VPP model to decrease its effects on transmission grid are implemented in Simulink model. At the same time, hydro turbine should be controlled in an optimized way that without large turbulence. Basically, the hydro power plant is responsible for balancing the active power between the wind farm and dynamic load. Since there is a limit for the hydro turbine output, the rest of either power shortage or surplus power need to be com-pensated by the grid. This is the fundamental control scheme, so called run time con-trol scheme. The advanced control schemes here are based on the moving average control method and forecast compensation control method. The forecast compensa-tion control method use the 24 hours ahead load forecasting data generated by Artifi-cial Neural Network. Later on, analysis of those three control schemes will be pre-sented. The last part of the project is the conclusion of the different control schemes according to comparison of their control results.

Microgrids are new challenging power systems under development. This report presents a feasibility study of microgrid development. This is an essential task before implementing microgrid systems. It is extremely important to know the number and size of distributed energy resources (DERs) needed and it is necessary to compare investment costs with benefits in order to evaluate the profitability of microgrids. Under the assumption that a large number of DERs improves the reliability of microgrids an optimization problem is formulated to get the accurate mix of distributed energy resources. Uncertainty in physical and financial parameters is taken into account to model the problem considering different scenarios.  Uncertainty takes place in load demanded, renewable energy generation and electricity market price forecasts, availability of distributed energy resources and the microgrid islanding. It is modeled in a stochastic way. The optimization problem is formulated firstly as a mixed-integer programming solved via branch and bound and then it is improved formulating a two stage problem using Benders’ Decomposition which shortens the problem resolution. This optimization problem is divided in a long-term investment master problem and a short-term operation subproblem and it is solved iteratively until it reaches convergence. Bender’s Decomposition optimization problem is applied to real data from the Illinois Institute of Technology (IIT) and it gives the ideal mix of distributed energy resources for different uncertainty scenarios. These distributed energy resources are selected from an initial set. It proves the usefulness of this optimization technique which can be also applied to different microgrids and data. The different solutions obtained for different scenarios are explained and analyzed. They show the possibility of microgrid implementation and determine the most favorable scenarios to reach the microgrid implementation successfully.  Reliability is a term highly linked to the microgrid concept and one of the most important reasons of microgrid development. Thus an analysis of reliability importance is implemented using the importance index of interruption cost (  ) in order to measure the reliability improvement of developing microgrids. It shows and quantifies the reliability improvement in the system.

Hybrid Energy Resource System (HERS) is studied and applied aroundworld in recent years. Control and monitor of them are quite important in realapplication. HERS also has the equirement to integral with power grid such asdistribution grid networks. Therefore, to design and implement the informationcommunication system following IEC 61850, which is most promising standard fordesign of substation communication and automation system, is necessary. This paperpresents the design of Information Communication Technology (ICT) architectureand Unified Modeling Language (UML) models and final implementation through LabVIEW programming for Smart Energy Container. Applying design following IEC61850 series standards allow the HERS can communicate and interoperate with other IEC61850 devices and SCADA systems. The implementation is applied to SmartEnergy Container which contains wind power, solar power, battery energy storagesystem, and hydrogen energy storage system. Verification and testing results shows thedesign is qualified to control and monitor Smart Energy Container. / Smart Energy Container

The recent increase of electric cars adoption will inuence the electricity demand in the distributionnetworks which risks to be higher than the maximum power available in the grid, if not well planned. Forthis reason, it is on the DSOs and TSOs's interest to plan carefully coordinated charging of a bulk of EVsas well as assess the possibility of EVs acting as energy storages with the Vehicle-to-Grid (V2G) or Vehicleto-Building (V2B) capability. When parked and plugged into the electric grid, EVs will absorb energy andstore it, being also able to deliver electricity back to the grid/building (V2G/B system).This can be anoptimized process, performed by an aggregator, gathering multiple EVs that discharge the battery into thegrid at peak time and charge when there is low demand i.e. overnight and o-peak hours.Numerous studies have investigated the possibility of aggregating multiple EVs and optimizing theircharging and discharging schedules for peak load reduction or energy arbitrage with participation in theelectricity market. However, no study was found for optimizing a shared eet of EVs with daily reservationsfor dierent users trying to perform V2B. In this study an optimization modelling algorithm (mixed integerlinear problem - MILP) that manages the possible reservations of the shared eet of EVs, coordinates thecharging and discharging schedules, and provides V2B (Vehicle-to-Building), with the objective of minimizingenergy costs and accounting with battery ageing has been developed. A case study with real data for abuilding is carried out modelling dierent number of EVs for two dierent days in year 2017, one in Marchand other in June.Results show that the prots are higher for all cases when introducing V2B as compared to a no optimizationscenario: V2B with battery degradation (50 ore/kWh) has decreased daily variable electricity costsbetween 54 and 59% in March and 60 and 63% for June when compared without smart charging. Integrationof battery degradation cost in V2B applications is necessary and inuences signicantly the chargingand discharging strategies adopted by EV and nally the total daily costs: The total daily cost increaseby maximal 10% for the day in March and 13% for the day in June when comparing the scenario that hasstationary battery and uses only-charging model for EVs with the scenario applying V2B mode consideringa degradation cost of 80 ore/kWh. / Ö kningen av antalet elbilar kommer att påverka lasten i elnätet som riskerar att bli högre än kapacitetom det inte är väl planerat. Därför är det i elnätsföretags intresse att samordna laddningen av de flesta elbilarna samt att utvärdera möjligheterna att använda elbilar som energilager gentemot elnätet (Vehicleto-Grid,V2G) eller byggnader (Vehicle-to-Building, V2B). Vid parkering och anslutning till elnätet kommer elbilar att ladda energi och lagra den, samtidigt de kan leverera el tillbaka till elnätet eller byggnaden (V2G/V2B). Detta kan vara en optimerad process som utförs av en aggregator genom att ladda flera elbilar i låglasttimmar och ladda ur dem under höglasttimmar.Många studier har undersökt möjligheten att aggregera flera elbilar och optimera laddningsoch urladdningsplaner för topplastreduktion eller energiarbitrage på elmarknaden. Ingen studie har dock hittats för att optimera en gemensam flotta av elbilar med dagliga reservationer för olika användare som försöker utföra V2B. Denna studie har utvecklat en optimeringsmodell (blandad heltalsprogrammering MILP) som hanterar möjliga reservationer av en flotta av elbilar, koordinerar laddning och urladdning planering, och utför V2B för att minimera energikostnader med hänsyn till batteriets åldrande. En fallstudie för en byggnad genomfördes modellering av olika antal elbilar för två dagar 2017, en i mars och andra i juni.Resultaten visar att vinsten är högre i samtliga fall då man introducerar V2B jämfört med scenario utan optimering: V2B med batteriladdningskostnad 50 öre/kWh minskade dagliga rörliga elkostnader mellan 54% och 59% i mars och mellan 60% och 63% i juni jämfört med utan smart laddning. Att inkludera batteriladdningskostnaden i V2B-applikationer är nödvändigt och har en signifikant inverkan på laddningsstrategierna och de totala kostnaderna: De totala dagliga kostnaderna ökar med upp till 10% i mars och upp till 13% i juni då man jämför scenariot att bara ladda elbilar och ha stationärt batteri med scenariot V2B med hänsyntill batteriladdningskostnad 80 öre/kWh.