Originally presented as the author's dissertation (doctoral)--Freiburg/Schweiz, 2007. / Includes bibliographical references (p. 224-258).

The jus in bello proportionality rule establishes an upper boundary on how much collateral damage combatants can cause whilst striking a lawful target and its associated rule on precautions in attack compels them to take all feasible measures to properly understand the situation on the ground and to mitigate civilian harm. Proportionality and precautions in attack have been codified in API for over forty years, but in that time, it has been difficult to hold troops and their leaders accountable for breaches of these rules. In this study, I examine several reasons for why these rules have been difficult to apply ex post by considering the strategic motivations of state officials and prosecutors. Specifically, I propose a game-theoretic model which describes the decisions that state officials and prosecutors have historically made, and I explore what changes to this model would prompt these actors to behave differently. The model was developed using insights gained from legal case studies, archival research and a series of interviews with relevant actors. It suggests, inter alia, that to induce state officials to support a stricter liability standard for unlawful attacks, they must either ascribe much more value to legitimacy than to the success of future military operations, or they must perceive the success of future military operations to be unaffected by the possibility of losing criminal or civil adjudication. State officials may perceive losing a civil case based on state liability as being less likely to affect the success of future military operations compared with criminal liability against individual troops. Therefore, state officials may be inclined to support a stricter civil liability standard, if they believed it would help the state to secure greater legitimacy.

La microfiltration est un procédé baro-membranaire largement utilisé pour stabiliser et clarifier les jus de fruits ou pour concentrer leur fraction pulpeuse. Toutefois le colmatage membranaire limite la productivité économique du procédé. Même si de nombreuses études ont été menées pour comprendre et limiter le colmatage, aucun véritable outil n'est aujourd'hui disponible pour prévoir la filtrabilité d'un jus de fruits. Le développement de ce type d'outils prévisionnels est pourtant essentiel pour faciliter l'optimisation des conditions de filtration et pour une meilleure maitrise du colmatage membranaire. Dans ce contexte, l'étude a été axée sur l'identification de nouveaux critères de filtrabilité des jus de fruits au travers de la compréhension et de la caractérisation des mécanismes de colmatage qui interviennent.En choisissant le jus d'orange comme modèle, une approche statistique a permis, dans un premier temps, une sélection rapide et pertinente des caractéristiques physico-chimiques des jus de fruits directement corrélées à leur filtrabilité, à savoir la matière sèche totale, l'extrait sec soluble, le pH, la conductivité et la granulométrie. Ensuite, des stratégies expérimentales complémentaires basées sur des filtrations à l'échelle du laboratoire ont été proposées pour identifier les différentes fractions colmatantes en fonction de leur taille ainsi que les mécanismes de colmatage associés. Ces stratégies novatrices ont permis d'étudier le pouvoir colmatant du jus d'orange en prenant en compte toute sa complexité et de proposer par la suite des cartographies de composés colmatants. Ces cartographies s'avèrent particulièrement intéressantes pour anticiper le comportement colmatant des jus de fruits sans avoir recours à des filtrations longues et coûteuses à grande échelle. Les résultats ont montré que le phénomène le plus important qui régit le colmatage membranaire global au cours de la filtration du jus d'orange semble être le colmatage externe par dépôt. Les objectifs de la dernière partie du travail, ont été de considérer plus fortement le caractère complexe et hétérogène des jus de fruits, pouvant les conduire à des changements brutaux de comportement lors de leur filtration. Pour cela des mesures rhéologiques en mode dynamique couplées à une stratégie d'isolement spécifique des différentes fractions colmatantes du jus d'orange ont été menées pour déterminer le comportement viscoélastique de la fraction insoluble du jus d'orange au cours de sa concentration. Les observations ont montré que les énergies des interactions entre les particules insolubles sont des fonctions croissantes de la concentration de la fraction insoluble et dépendent de la taille des particules. De plus, la transition vers un comportement « solide » du jus d'orange semble être favorisée par la présence des fractions particulaire et supra-colloïdale. Ces observations sont cohérentes avec le mécanisme de colmatage prédominant dû à l'accumulation de ces fractions à la surface de la membrane. La confrontation de nouvelles études de filtrabilité à l'échelle du laboratoire avec la performance de la filtration à grande échelle permettra de généraliser les stratégies proposées pour prédire la performance de la filtration de nouveaux jus de fruits. / Microfiltration is a pressure driven process successfully used to clarify and stabilize fruit juices or to concentrate their pulpy fraction. However, membrane fouling remains the critical factor governing the overall economic productivity of this process. Even if, many studies have been made to understand and limit membrane fouling, to date, there stills a lack of predicting tools to evaluate the filterability of fruit juices. However, it is interesting to develop practical and efficient tools for the prediction of fruit juices filterability in order to adapt and optimize filtration conditions to the fouling behavior of the filtered juice. In this respect, this study focused on the identification of new criteria of fruit juices filterability through the comprehension and the characterization of the potential fouling mechanisms.First, orange juice was chosen as test matrix and a statistical approach was used to select simple and relevant physico-chemical characteristics of this juice in relation with its filterability, namely dry matter, TSS, pH, conductivity, and particles size. Later, additional experimental strategies based on filtration tests at lab-scale were developed to identify the relevant size-classes of foulant compounds and related fouling mechanisms. These innovative strategies allowed studying the fouling potential of orange juice with the consideration of its complexity and proposing cartographies of foulant compounds. These cartographies are particularly interesting to anticipate the fouling behavior of fruit juices without any costly filtration operation at large scale. Moreover, results showed that external fouling seems to be the predominant fouling mechanism governing the overall membrane fouling during orange juice filtration. Finally, the aim of the last part of the work was to highlight the role of the complex and heterogeneous nature of fruit juices in their unexpected behavior during their filtration. For this purpose, the viscoelastic behavior of orange juice suspended solids during their concentration was obtained from rheological measurements in dynamic mode coupled with specific isolation of orange juice foulant fractions. Results showed that the energy of the interactions between juice particles increased as the suspended solids concentration increased and depends on the particles size. Furthermore, the solid-like behavior of the juice was enhanced by the presence of supra-colloids and large particles. These observations are in accordance with the predominant fouling mechanism that is due to the accumulation of these fruit fractions on the membrane surface. The confrontation of new filterability studies at laboratory scale with the performance of large-scale filtration will enable to generalize the proposed strategies to predict the performance of filtration of new fruit juices.

In this paper, I will present a Kantian revision of the Doctrine of Double Effect (DDE). In order to do so, I will explain the concept of jus in bello – focusing in particular on the distinction between intent and foresight. I will then argue that we ought to take an agency-inspired look at the DDE. Finally, I will conclude by arguing for my thesis that Boyle’s theory of agency, while good, needs to be revised in order to accommodate concerns stemming from Kant’s Formula of Humanity… namely consent.

The trend towards the automation and robotization of warfare, enabling the exercise of violence from a distance, has been long-present, dating back to such inventions as the bow and arrow that allowed an archer to kill from afar. Today’s military drones now permit an extreme separation between rivals. James Der Derian’s concept of virtuous war encapsulates a certain normative view of current and future wars. A rationale of the actors waging virtuous war is that violence is used in a cleaner way, resulting in ever fewer battle deaths. In this thesis, I argue that the next step in the progression of military weaponry is the inclusion of artificial superintelligence (hereinafter ASI) in the American drone and counterterrorism program. While including this technology into the American war machine may represent a moral objective, I conclude that the use of ASI for military purposes is immoral because accountability becomes indeterminable.

On January 3, 2020, Iranian major general Qasem Soleimani was killed through a targeted drone strike at the authorisation of the US President Donald Trump. This thesis examines if, and in that case how, the arguments presented by the Trump administration used to justify the killing of general Soleimani are in line with the principles of Just War theory. By conducting a case study, through a qualitative content analysis, analysing four official statements made by the Trump administration during a two months period after the killing, this thesis will examine the moral discourses in the arguments presented. Drawing on insights from studies regarding the justification of War on Terror, preemptive war, and targeted killings according to the Just War theory, lays the foundation for a deeper reasoning of the legality of the argumentation based on the principles of Just War. This thesis will show that in some aspects, the arguments presented by the Trump administration can be interpreted to be in accordance with one of the principles, but none of the statements satisfy the criteria in all of the principles. Therefore, the overall conclusion of this analysis is that the Trump administration has the intention of justifying the attack, but the arguments used are not rooted in Just War theory. Further, this thesis will also show an inconsistency over time in the arguments presented. The contribution from this study lays in the analysis of the arguments on the basis of the principles of Just War theory, not from the perspective of international law. The intention from this thesis is not to analyse if the attack itself can be seen as just according to Just War theory but looking at the argumentation presented by the Trump administration.

Jus post bellum is the less known part of the just war theory which concerns how one should act morally in the end and the aftermath of a war. Lately this component of the theory has gained a lot of attention among researchers who state that jus post bellum is at least as important as the other parts, jus ad bellum and jus in bello, and needs to be given more priority. Central in the researchers’concepts of jus post bellum is the international community which is stated to be a key party in the implementation. This essay aims to increase the understanding about this subject by analyzing how the problems surrounding jus post bellum is discussed by the international community today. This is achieved by using the “What’s the Problem Represented to Be” (WPR) policy analysis approach on the UN general assembly debate held in 2019. The results shows that jus post bellum is discussed frequently in the debate and contains several similarities with the research overview. However, opinions are divided on what the problems, solutions, responsibilities and main factors are which can be a problem for future development.

Des complexes insolubles d'IPL/PFM ont été formés à pH 4.0, 3.5, 3.0 et 2.5 par le mélange de solutions d'isolât de protéines de lactosérum (IPL) et de pectine faiblement méthylée (PFM). L'acidification a été réalisée soit avant, ou après le mélange de solutions avec des ratios protéines:polysaccharide (P:Ps) de 2:1, 1:1 et 1:2 (0.4% de polymères totaux). La caractérisation des complexes a démontré, qu'au ratio 2:1, la turbidité et le rendement en complexes étaient optimaux à un pH aux environs de 3.0. De plus, les complexes obtenus par acidification après mélange des solutions avaient une taille plus petite et constante. L'évaluation de Pencapsulation d'ingrédients hydrosolubles par les complexes IPL/PFM en fonction de leur concentration a été effectuée aux pH 4.0, 3.5, 3.0 et 2.5 et au ratio P:Ps de 2:1. Les concentrations utilisées étaient de 0, 0.002, 0.01, 0.05 et 0.1% pour la thiamine et de 0.1, 0.2 et 0.3% pour les anthocyanes. L'encapsulation d'anthocyanes en fonction du ratio P:Ps à pH 3.5 a été aussi évaluée avec l'incorporation de 0.025% p/p d'anthocyanes dans les complexes aux ratios de 2:1 et 1:1. Le contenu en thiamine des complexes ainsi que l'efficacité d'encapsulation (4-7%) étaient optimaux à pH 3.5. Les hautes concentrations en thiamine ont entraîné une diminution du rendement en complexes à pH 3.5 mais aussi une augmentation du contenu en thiamine dans les complexes. L'efficacité d'encapsulation des anthocyanes était plus élevée avec le ratio P:Ps 2:1 comparativement au ratio 1:1. La protection d'ingrédients hydrosolubles par les complexes IPL/PFM a été évaluée dans du jus de pomme (pH 3.5) contenant des anthocyanes encapsulés. Le jus a été pasteurisé à 90°C/12 s et entreposé à 11 000 lux/40°C pendant 14 jours. La chaleur a entraîné la diffusion d'une proportion importante des anthocyanes encapsulés vers l'extérieur des complexes mais la quantité d'anthocyanes résiduelle dans les complexes est demeurée constante tout au long de l'entreposage. L'étude de la stabilité des complexes IPL/PFM, contenant de la thiamine, dans un système digestif modèle a démontré que les complexes ont libéré totalement leur contenu en thiamine dans le compartiment stomacal. Cet effet serait du au pH très acide du compartiment qui aurait dissocié le complexe IPL/PFM. Les résultats de cette recherche démontrent que le complexe IPL/PFM constitue une approche prometteuse pour l'encapsulation d'ingrédients hydrosolubles dans les aliments acides. / Insoluble WPI-LMP complexes have been formed at pH 4.0, 3.5, 3.0, and 2.5 by mixing whey protein isolate (WPI) and low methoxyl pectin (LMP) solutions. The acidification was performed before or after the mixing of the solutions at proteimpolysaccharide (P:Ps) ratios of 2:1, 1:1, and 1:2 (0.4% total polymer). Characterization of the complexes demonstrated that at P:Ps ratio 2:1, the turbidity and the sedimental complex yield were optimal around pH 3.0. In addition, complexes obtained by post-blending acidification had small and constant particle sizes. Evaluation of water soluble ingredients encapsulation by WPI-LMP complexes as a function of ingredients concentration was achieved at pH 4.0, 3.5, 3.0, and 2.5 and at P:Ps ratio 2:1. Ingredients concentrations used were 0, 0.002, 0.01, 0.05 and 0.1% for thiamine and 0.1, 0.2 et 0.3% for anthocyanins. Anthocyanins entrapment as a function of the ratio at pH 3.5 has also been achieved with the incorporation of 0.025% w/w anthocyanins in the complexes at P:Ps ratios of 1:1 and 2:1. Thiamine content of the complexes as well as the entrapment efficiency (4-7%) was optimal at pH 3.5. High concentrations of thiamine induced a decrease of the sedimentable-complexes yield at pH 3.5 but increased thiamine content of the complexes. P:Ps ratio 2:1 provided higher entrapment efficiency of anthocyanins than ratio 1:1. The protecting effect of the WPI-LMP complexes was evaluated in apple juice (pH 3.5) containing encapsulated anthocyanins. The juice was pasteurized at 90°C/12 s and stored at 11 000 lux/40°C for 14 days. Although the heat induced the diffusion of a large portion of anthocyanins out of the complexes, the residual amount of anthocyanins in the complexes remained constant during storage. The study of the stability of WPI-LMP complexes, containing thiamine, in a gastrointestinal System demonstrated that complexes delivered the whole thiamine content in the stomach compartment. This effect was probably due to the very acidic pH of the compartment, which may have dissociated the complexes. The results of this project demonstrated that WPI-LMP complexes represent a promising tool for water soluble ingredients encapsulation in acidic foods.

Le but de ce projet était d'étudier l'influence de jus enrichis en polysaccharides et dont la viscosité est contrôlée sur la réponse glycémique et la satiété chez l'humain. Des polysaccharides ont été sélectionnés sur la base des critères suivants: stabilité après traitement thermique, viscosité permettant l'acceptabilité du produit, viscosité reliée à l'impact sur la réponse glycémique dans la littérature (0,1 et 1,0 Pa.s à 30s"1 ) et évaluation organoleptique par un panel de dégustation. Un jus témoin sans polysaccharide a été élaboré; les trois autres formulations de jus ont été enrichies : de gomme xanthane, du P-glucane ou d'un mélange de gomme xanthane et de P-glucane. La consommation du jus enrichi du mélange de gomme xanthane et de P-glucane a résulté en une atténuation significative de la réponse glycémique de 0.8 mmol/L (P=0.001) et une augmentation significative de la sensation de satiété. Ces résultats s'expliquent par des viscosités élevées et un comportement rhéologique moins pseudoplastique que la gomme xanthane utilisée seule. L'importance d'utiliser la viscosité au lieu de la concentration en polysaccharide lors de l'élaboration d'aliments dans le but d'obtenir un impact sur la réponse glycémique, insulinémique et sur la satiété a été démontrée. / This project aims to study the impact on glycemic response and satiety of polysaccharide enriched juices having controlled viscosity. Polysaccharides were selected base on their thermal stability, viscosity as related in literature to the impact on glycemia (0.1 et 1.0 Pa.s at 30s"1 ) and sensory analysis. A control juice was developed and three other juices were enriched with either: xanthan gum, P-glucan or a mix of xanthan gum and P-glucan. The juice supplemented with the mix of xanthan gum and P-glucan demonstrated a significant attenuation of the glycemic response by 0.8mmol/L (P=0.001) and a positive impact on satiety. These results were related to the high viscosity of the juice and probably to the fact that this formulation was less pseudoplastic than the juice enriched with xanthan gum alone. These results showed the importance of using measured viscosity instead of polysaccharide concentration to impact on the glycemic, insulinemic response and satiety with fiber enriched food.

<p>The thesis argues that, as a tradition, the concept of just war is socially and contextually sensitive and revisable. It explores the relevance of theory according to the dynamic changes in the nature of threats in the international arena and concludes that the just war tradition is still relevant to the contemporary modern threats that require an act of pre-emptive warfare. However, it needs some revision to be comprehensively applicable to the dynamic of modern threats and the nature of pre-emptive war. Due to the nature of pre-emptive war a nation launches the attack before the aggression from the other nation-in-conflict erupts. The author, therefore, proposed several theoretical and procedural revisions in both the principle of “Jus Ad Bellum” and “Jus In Bello” using the method of reflective equilibrium to create a comprehensive “just” pre-emptive war doctrine as part of the development and dynamic in just war tradition.</p>