A presente dissertação tem por objetivo tratar do direito de estar em juízo desacompanhado de advogado (ius postulandi) perante a Justiça do Trabalho, mais especificamente diante das alterações trazidas pela Emenda Constitucional nº 45/2004. O trabalho inicia-se por uma narrativa histórica que descreve o caminho traçado pelo instituto, desde sua criação até os dias de hoje, demonstrando que desde cedo houve problemas em relação à sua utilização. Após, cuida-se de analisar brevemente o novo quadro trazido pela Emenda já citada, evidenciando, sobretudo, o aumento substancial de matérias complexas que foram trazidas ao crivo do Judiciário Trabalhista. Em seguida, demonstra-se que, ao seguir a lógica da maioria da doutrina, ficaria autorizada a utilização do ius postulandi também para estes novos temas. Tal situação, prosseguimos, tornou polêmica a permanência do instituto no ordenamento, especialmente se levada em consideração uma análise que tenha como ponto principal a idéia do acesso à justiça. Depois, corroborando a tese, examinam-se alguns aspectos práticos da questão, descrevendo-se pontos relacionados ao ius postulandi quando efetivamente utilizado em uma Sala de Audiências. Ao final, trata-se de assuntos correlatos ao tema, indicando medidas que devem correr em paralelo à questão envolvendo citado instituto, para que se possa efetivamente buscar à situação mais justa para a parte. Conclui-se, assim, a dissertação, com a apresentação dos argumentos finais e o posicionamento no sentido da inaplicabilidade do ius postulandi em matéria trabalhista / The purpose of this dissertation is to discuss the ius postulandi (the right to claim without legal assistance) with regard to the Labor Law, especially concerning the modifications arisen out of Constitutional Amendment No. 4512004. The paper begins with a historical narrative that describes the evolution of ius postulandi in Brazil, and the problems related to its use, since its creation up to the present day. After that, it is briefly analyzed the new framework brought out by the Amendment, evidencing, in particular, the substantial increase of complex matters that were brought to the Labor Court Jurisdiction. Then, it is demonstrated that, by following the logic of the majority of the doctrine, it would also be authorized the use of ius postulandi for these new matters. Thereafter, this situation turned untenable the maintenance of the institute in the legal structure, once it can not resist to an analysis that takes as main topic the idea of the access to justice. Later, some practical aspects of such issue are analyzed, describing controversial topics related to the subject when effectively used in an Audience room. At the end, some corresponded topics concerning to ius postulandi are also analyzed, appointing altematives for granting non-restrictive access of justice for all employees and, consequently, reach the most fair to the party. The dissertation is concluded with the exposition of the final arguments and the position for the inapplicability of ius postulandi in Labor Courts in Brazil.

A presente dissertação analisa o racismo no Brasil e busca investigar, sob a ótica sociológica, jurídica e justrabalhista, as contradições no conteúdo das legislações com o que ocorre de fato nas relações empregatícias, tentando elucidar formas de combater a discriminação racial como modo de afirmar os direitos fundamentais no âmbito laboral. Para tanto, inicialmente, será feita uma explanação histórico-social do processo de fixação do racismo no pensamento intelectual e suas consequências sociais pós-abolição. Consecutivamente, avaliar-se-á o racismo na Constituição da República, dando-se ênfase aos instrumentos legais e políticos complementares, implementados em nome da dignidade humana e da igualdade dos indivíduos perante a lei. Partindo destes dois aspectos (histórico-social e jurídico-legislativo), o estudo estará voltado para as ações afirmativas como meio de combate à discriminação racial no ambiente de trabalho mostrando, através de dados estatísticos, que valores e comportamentos discriminatórios ainda são presentes em nosso país, mas que a fundamentabilidade do direito ao trabalho deve prevalecer. / This dissertation examines racism in Brazil and aims to investigate, from the perspective sociological, legal and justrabalhista, the contradictions in the content of the laws with what actually occurs in employee relations, trying to elucidate ways to combat racial discrimination as a way of affirming the fundamental rights in the workplace. For that, initially, there will be a socio-historical explanation of the process of fixation of racism in intellectual thought and its social consequences after abolition. Consecutively, an assessment will be racism in the Constitution, giving emphasis to the legal instruments and complementary policy implemented in the name of human dignity and equality of individuals before the law. Based on these two aspects (historical, social, legal and legislative), the study will focus on affirmative action as a means of combating racial discrimination in the workplace by showing, through statistical data that discriminatory values and behaviors are still present in our country, but the fundamental right to work must prevail.

Magister Legum - LLM / South Africa

The world has found itself in the unsatisfactory position of depending greatly upon the services of satellites, all while the risk of satellites becoming targets during conflict looms ever greater. This paper assesses the lex lata of the law of self-defence as enshrined in the Charter of the United Nations, focusing on the rationae materiae aspect of the armed attack concept. It thereafter applies general conclusions in this regard to the specific context of hostile acts against satellite systems, with an aim to clarify under what conditions such hostile acts justify the exercise force in self-defence.

Parmi les maladies affectant les pommes, la moisissure bleue causée par Penicillium expansum est une préoccupation majeure. Elle cause des pertes de rendement et de qualité dues également à la production de mycotoxines telles que la patuline (PAT) et la citrinine (CIT). La PAT est la plus alarmante en raison de ses propriétés cytotoxiques, génotoxiques et immunosuppressives.L'Union européenne (UE) a établi des réglementations spécifiques pour protéger la santé des consommateurs et des niveaux maximaux de 50 g / kg sont fixés pour les jus de fruits et les produits dérivés, 25 g / kg pour les purées de pommes et les compotes et 10 g / kg pour les aliments destinés aux bébés et aux jeunes enfants. En dépit de ces mesures, la PAT continue à être présente dans les aliments et / ou les boissons commerciaux, dépassant parfois les limites maximales. Des recherches supplémentaires sont par conséquent nécessaires pour minimiser la contamination des produits alimentaires par cette mycotoxine et son champignon producteur. Bien que la plupart des études sur P. expansum soient essentiellement centrées sur la PAT, le génomede ce champignon présente d'autres clusters de métabolites secondaires (SM) prédits dont certains peuvent être associés à des métabolites potentiellement toxiques. Afin de contrôler la synthèse de SM, l'étude des facteurs de transcription globaux régulant leur production est essentielle. Dans une première partie, le gène veA, appartenant à la famille des protéines du complexe velvet, a été caractérisé et son impact sur le développement du champignon, sa virulence et son métabolisme secondaire a été élucidé. La délétion de ce gène a conduit à une réduction de la production de PAT et de CIT et à une diminution de l'expression de leurs clusters de gènes. VeA a également un impact global sur le métabolisme secondaire, puisque 15 des 35gènes de structure présentent une régulation différentielle sur les milieux testés. Dans une deuxième partie, l’influence de l’acide ascorbique (AA) sur la concentration de PAT dans le jus de pomme trouble a été étudiée à la fois en laboratoire et en milieu semi-industriel. Une méthodologie analytique séparant la PAT et d'autres composés générés au cours de la réaction aété optimisée. Les conditions optimales d'action de l’AA sur la PAT ont été analysées. De plus,nous avons identifié des produits de dégradation moins toxiques que la PAT et résultant du traitement par l’AA. Pour conclure, cette thèse se rattache à la gestion des risques de la PAT dans le secteur des fruits ; elle apporte des connaissances et des améliorations significatives tant sur le plan fondamental que sur le plan pratique. Ces avancées résident principalement dans la description d'une souche mutée de P. expansum moins toxique que celle naturellement retrouvée dans la nature, et décrivant un additif alimentaire améliorant les qualités de nombreux produits transformés et diminuant la concentration de PAT en générant des composés moins toxiques. / Among diseases affecting apples, blue mould caused by Penicillium expansum is a major concern. It causes yield and quality losses, as well as food safety issues due to the production of mycotoxins such as patulin (PAT) and citrinin (CIT). PAT is the most worrying one and has cytotoxic, genotoxic and immunosuppressive properties. The European Union (EU) has established specific regulations to protect the consumer’s health and maximum levels of PAT of 5 g/kg is set for fruit juices and derived products, 25 g/kg for apple purees and compotes and 10g/kg for food intended for babies and young children. However, PAT is still found in commercial food and/or beverage products, sometimes exceeding the maximum limits and more research is needed to minimize contamination of food products by this mycotoxin and its fungus. Even though most studies on P. expansum have focused on PAT itself, the genome of this fungus exhibits other predicted secondary metabolite (SM) clusters, some of which may be associated with potentially toxic metabolites. In order to control the synthesis of SMs, the study of global transcription factors regulating their production is essential. In a first part, the veA gene, belonging to the velvet family, was characterised and its impact on the development of the fungus, its virulence and its secondary metabolism was elucidated. The disruption of this gene led to the failure in PAT and CIT production and a decrease in the expression of their gene cluster. It also revealed a global impact on the secondary metabolism, as 15 of 35 backbone genes showed differential regulation on the media tested. In a second part, the influence of ascorbic acid (AA) on the concentration of PAT in cloudy apple juice was studied on both lab and semi-industrial scale. An analytical methodology separating PAT and other compounds generated during the reaction was optimized. Optimal conditions of action of AA on PAT were studied. In addition, degradation products less toxic than PAT and resulting from AA treatment were identified. To conclude, this thesis is part of the risk management of PAT in the fruit sector; it provides significant improvements at both fundamental and practical levels. These advances are mainly characterized by the description of a mutated strain of P. expansum that is less toxic than that naturally occurring in nature, and the description of a food additive that improves numerous products qualities and affects PAT concentration, thusgenerating less toxic compounds

This study deals with two aspects of international law. The first is ‘immunity of state officials’ and the second is ‘prosecution of international crimes.’ Immunity is discussed in the context of international crimes. The study focuses on Africa because African state officials have become subjects of international criminal justice before international courts and various national courts both in Europe and Africa. It presents a new contribution to international criminal justice in Africa by examining the practice on prosecution of international crimes in eleven African states: South Africa; Kenya; Senegal; Ethiopia; Burundi; Rwanda; DRC; Congo; Niger; Burkina Faso and Uganda. The study concludes that immunity of state officials has been outlawed in these states thereby rendering state officials amenable to criminal prosecution for international crimes. The thesis argues that although immunity is founded under customary international law, it does not prevail over international law jus cogens on the prosecution of international crimes because such jus cogens trumps immunity. It is argued that, committing international crimes cannot qualify as acts performed in official capacity for the purpose of upholding immunity of state officials. In principle, customary international law outlaws functional immunity in respect of international crimes. Hence, in relation to international crimes, state officials cannot benefit from immunity from prosecution or subpoenas. Further, the study criticises the African Union’s opposition to the prosecutions before the International Criminal Court (ICC). It argues that however strong it may be, such opposition is unfounded in international law and is motivated by African solidarity to weaken the role of the ICC in Africa. It concludes that the decisions taken by the African Union not to cooperate with the ICC are geared towards breaching international obligations on cooperation with the ICC. The study calls upon African states to respect their obligations under the Rome Statute and customary international law. It recommends that African states should cooperate with the ICC in the investigations and prosecution of persons responsible for international crimes in Africa. At international level, the study reveals the conflicting jurisprudence of international courts on subpoenas against state officials. It argues that, state officials are not immune from being subpoenaed to testify or adduce evidence before international courts. It contends that issuing subpoenas to state officials ensures fairness and equality of arms in the prosecution of international crimes. It recommends that international courts should treat state officials equally regarding prosecution and subpoenas. It further recommends that African states should respect their obligations arising from the Rome Statute and that, immunity should not be used to develop a culture of impunity for international crimes committed in Africa. / Thesis (LLD)--University of Pretoria, 2012. / Centre for Human Rights / unrestricted

Nous passons plus des trois quarts de notre vie dans l'état postprandial. Pourtant, une plus grande attention a été accordée à l'étude du métabolisme à jeun qu'à l'impact de l'état postprandial sur la santé.Il est prouvé scientifiquement qu'une alimentation optimale pour la santé passe par la prise en compte de l'impact glycémique des aliments au-delà de leur simple teneur en glucides. Un déterminant important de l'impact glycémique de notre alimentation est l'amidon, qui joue un rôle clé dans la nutrition humaine en fournissant jusqu'à 50% de l'apport énergétique total. S'il est établi que la cinétique de digestion des aliments riches en amidon est un élément essentiel de leur impact glycémique, les contributions de chaque étape digestive à ce processus restent un sujet de débats. Afin de mieux comprendre les facteurs qui peuvent influencer la réponse glycémique aux aliments riches en amidon, et d’identifier de nouvelles stratégies pour atténuer leur impact glycémique, il est essentiel d'élargir notre compréhension du processus digestif de l'amidon. Cette thèse visait à étudier la digestion de repasriches en amidon (pain et pâtes), à réévaluer la contribution l’amylase salivaire à l'aide de digestions semi-dynamiques in vitro, et à mener une étude chez l'Homme pour déterminer l'effet de boissons (jus de citron et thé) sur : la réponse glycémique au pain, l'apport ad libitum, et la digestion gastrique étudiée par imagerie par résonance magnétique (IRM). Nos résultats apportent une base scientifique à l'élaboration d'une stratégie simple et efficace pour réduire la réponse glycémique aux aliments riches en amidon dans des repas de tous les jours. / All of us spend over three quarters of our lives in the postprandial state. Still, more attention has been dedicated to the study of the fasting metabolism than to the impact of the postprandial state on health.Scientific evidence supports that an optimum diet for health requires consideration of the glycaemic impact of foods in preference to consideration of carbohydrate content alone. An important determinant of the glycaemic impactof our diets is starch, which plays a key role in human nutrition, supplying up to 50% of the total energy intake. If it is clear that the digestion rate of starch-rich foods is an important determinant of their glycaemic impact, the contribution of each digestive stage to this process remains controversy. To better understand the factors that can influence the glycaemic response to starch-rich foods, and to identify new strategies to attenuate the glycaemic impact of starch-rich diets, it is essential to expand our understanding of thedigestive process of starch. The aims of this PhD were to study the digestionof starch-rich meals (bread and pasta), to reevaluate the contribution of salivary amylase using semi-dynamic in vitro digestions, and to conduct a human study to determine the effect of drinks (lemon juice and tea) on: the glycaemic response to bread, ad libitum intake, and gastric digestion assessed by magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). Our results provide scientific rationale for the development of a simple and effective strategy to reduce the glycaemicresponse to starch-rich foods in everyday-life meals.

This study looks at the roles and functions of heraldry in two parish churches in medieval Sweden. The study does this by hermeneutically relating the extant heraldic inventories of the churches to their historical contexts, specifically the view of the church as a multidimensional space and the understanding of the church as part of a constructed social landscape. Furthermore, the study aims to determine the relationship between heraldic art in churches and the legal relationship between that church and the armiger. These legal relationships include that of a bishop to his canon collegiate, the king to the church, and the patronus to his church. Lastly the study also attempts to determine the extent of the liturgical role of heraldry in these two churches by relating the extant heraldic inventories of the churches to the local liturgy of the early 16th century. The results show that heraldry has been used to legitimise power and give a sense of continuity in the transfer of power over the churches. The heraldry has also been found to express piety by allowing the armiger to be heraldically present within the chancel and in liturgical connection to the Eucharist. The study makes no explicit link between any form of heraldry in the church and any particular legal relationship to said church, but maintains that the award of patronage over a church and of having heraldic presence in a church both stem from donations to the church and its works. The study links the liturgical role of heraldry in the burial rite of a knight with St. Briget of Sweden’s view of the knights shield as a symbol for their vow to protect the church and her ideals. The subsequent tradition of mounting a deceased knight’s shield in the church is then interpreted as a continual sign of that vow and of the knight’s continued heraldic presence withing the parish. The presence of arma Christi within the extant heraldic inventories can be interpreted as a manifestation of the ideals of the church, while other coats of arms are subservient to that of the Christ. Arma Christi furthermore serve to legitimise heraldic presence as mystical presence in a way similar to liturgical icons.

Soucieux d'offrir des jus de fruits de qualité à la hauteur des attentes des consommateurs, les transformateurs prônent davantage l'utilisation de conservateur naturel à titre d'agents antimicrobiens. Ce projet visait d'abord à évaluer l'efficacité antimicrobienne, sur les micro-organismes associés à la dégradation des jus de fruits, de plusieurs préparations d'oxyde de Ca, de Mg et de Zn nanocristallins ayant différentes tailles et morphologies en combinaison avec sa concentration, son temps d'exposition et le pH du milieu. Ensuite, il avait pour but d'évaluer l'effet conservateur de ces produits dans les jus de fruits en comparaison du benzoate et du sorbate tout en déterminant l'impact sur la qualité organoleptique, microbiologique et physico-chimique des jus. Les résultats obtenus ont montré que l'oxyde de CaO nanoparticulé a été le plus efficace contre les bactéries lactiques et les levures, due entre autre par son alcalinité de surface. Un effet bactéricide a été noté pour ZnO nanoparticulaires contre les bactéries lactiques. Cette recherche démontre aussi que CaO, MgO et ZnO agissent comme un fongistatique sur le mycélium des moisissures, sans détruire leurs spores. À la lumière des résultats obtenus, ZnO peut préserver le jus d'orange et le jus de pomme durant 3 et 6 jours, respectivement. Par contre, les oxydes de métaux alcalins n'ont montré aucun pouvoir conservateur. Une partie de l'activité antimicrobienne des oxydes de métaux, surtout ceux alcalins, est compromise par les acides organiques présents dans les jus ou par l'agrégation des nanoparticules en dispersion. Cette étude démontre que les oxydes de métaux nanoparticules, surtout le ZnO, pourraient être mis à profit pour la conservation des jus de fruit.

La recrudescence des conflits internes dans le contexte post-guerre froide a permis de propulser à l’avant-plan la préoccupation pour les individus. Alors que la paix et la sécurité internationales ont historiquement constitué les piliers du système institutionnel international, une porte s’ouvrait pour rendre effectif un régime de protection des droits de l’homme par-delà les frontières. Pour les humanistes, l’intervention humanitaire représentait un mal nécessaire pour pallier aux souffrances humaines souvent causées par des divergences ethniques et religieuses. Pourtant, cette pratique est encore souvent perçue comme une forme de néo-colonialisme et entre en contradiction avec les plus hautes normes régissant les relations internationales, soit les principes de souveraineté des États et de non-intervention. La problématique du présent mémoire s’inscrit précisément dans cette polémique entre la préséance des droits de l’État et la prédilection pour les droits humains universels, deux fins antinomiques que la Commission internationales pour l’intervention et la souveraineté des États (CIISE) a tenté de concilier en élaborant son concept de responsabilité de protéger. Notre mémoire s’inscrit dans le champ de la science politique en études internationales mais s’articule surtout autour des notions et enjeux propres à la philosophie politique, plus précisément à l’éthique des relations internationales. Le travail se veut une réflexion critique et théorique des conclusions du rapport La responsabilité de protéger, particulièrement en ce qui concerne le critère de la juste cause et, dans une moindre mesure, celui d’autorité appropriée. Notre lecture des conditions de la CIISE à la justification morale du déclenchement d’une intervention humanitaire – critères issues de la doctrine de la guerre juste relativement au jus ad bellum – révèle une position mitoyenne entre une conception progressiste cosmopolitique et une vision conservatrice d’un ordre international composé d’États souverains. D’une part, la commission se dissocie du droit international en faisant valoir un devoir éthique d’outrepasser les frontières dans le but de mettre un terme aux violations massives des droits de l’homme et, d’autre part, elle craint les ingérences à outrance, comme en font foi l’établissement d’un seuil de la juste cause relativement élevé et la désignation d’une autorité multilatérale à titre de légitimateur de l’intervention. Ce travail dialectique vise premièrement à présenter et situer les recommandations de la CIISE dans la tradition de la guerre juste. Ensuite, il s’agit de relever les prémisses philosophiques tacites dans le rapport de la CIISE qui sous-tendent le choix de préserver une règle de non-intervention ferme de laquelle la dérogation n’est exigée qu’en des circonstances exceptionnelles. Nous identifions trois arguments allant en ce sens : la reconnaissance du relativisme moral et culturel; la nécessité de respecter l’autonomie et l’indépendance des communautés politiques en raison d’une conception communautarienne de la légitimité de l’État, des réquisits de la tolérance et des avantages d’une responsabilité assignée; enfin, l’appréhension d’un bouleversement de l’ordre international sur la base de postulats du réalisme classique. Pour finir, nous nuançons chacune de ces thèses en souscrivant à un mode de raisonnement cosmopolitique et conséquentialiste. Notre adhésion au discours individualiste normatif nous amène à inclure dans la juste cause de la CIISE les violations systématiques des droits individuels fondamentaux et à cautionner l’intervention conduite par une coalition ou un État individuel, pourvu qu’elle produise les effets bénéfiques désirés en termes humanitaires. / The increasing number of internal conflicts in the Post-Cold War era propelled to the foreground the concern for individuals. Though international peace and security historically constituted the pillars of the world institutional system, the opportunity arose to establish an effective and cross-boundary human rights protection regime. According to humanists, humanitarian intervention was the necessary evil to bring an end to the human sufferings caused by ethnic and religious differences. Nevertheless, this kind of interference is still nowadays perceived as a neo-colonialist action and goes against the highest international relations norms, namely the state sovereignty and the non-intervention principles. This thesis’ issue lies within the controversy between states’ rights and universal human rights, which are two conflicting ends the International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty (ICISS) tried to reconcile along with elaborating its responsibility to protect concept. The field of this paper is political science in international studies, but the focus is above all on political philosophy notions and stakes, particularly on ethics of international relations. The goal is to build a critical and theoretical thinking about the Responsibility to Protect conclusions, particularly regarding the just cause and appropriate authority criteria. In accordance with our interpretation of the ICISS moral justification conditions for humanitarian intervention – criteria derived from the just war theory’s concern for jus ad bellum – the commission’s stance is split into a progressive cosmopolitan view and a more conservative one that promotes a world order constituted by sovereign states. On one hand the commission separates itself from international law, putting forward an ethical duty to stop the massive human rights violations beyond borders. At the same time it is afraid of excessive interferences, as shown by the establishment of a relatively high just cause threshold and the appointment of a multilateral body in charge of legitimizing the intervention. This dialectical paper’s first objective is to describe and place the ICISS recommendations into the just war tradition. Then, the purpose is to sum up the tacit philosophical premises of the ICISS report in relation to its choice to preserve a firm non-intervention norm from which no derogation is permitted, except in case of exceptional circumstances. From that we identify three arguments: the acceptance of moral and cultural relativism; the requirement of respecting political communities’ autonomy and independence on account of a communitarian conception of state sovereignty, the prerequisites for tolerance and the assigned responsibility advantages; finally, the fear of an international order disruption on the basis of classical realism postulates. Ultimately, we challenge each one of these ideas adopting a cosmopolitan and consequentialist reasoning. Adhering to the normative individualist discourse, we propose to broaden the ICISS just cause so that it includes systematic fundamental human rights violations and to support coalition or individual state intervention, insofar as it produces the desired humanitarian benefits.