Il existe deux grands types de politiques dans le commerce international, le protectionnisme et le libre échange. Le libre échange est généralement accepté sur le plan international, mais cela ne signifie pas que le protectionnisme est totalement rejeté par les pays. En revanche, il est effectué sous les formes plus ou moins couvertes, et il serait plus difficile d’identifier les biais protectionnistes parmi les mesures prises sous le prétexte légitime. Le droit antidumping est un domaine qui suscite toujours des débats relatifs au protectionnisme entre les pays. En raison des intérêts nationaux, il est rare de voir les pays ouvrir complètement leur marché, c’est ainsi que l’OMC octroie aux États membres le pouvoir de limiter les importations de produits étrangers dans certains cas spéciaux. Les mesures antidumping sont un outil important qui protège le marché domestique, face au choc des importations étrangères visant à obtenir des bénéfices d’une manière injustifiée. En réalisant que les pays pourraient chercher à acquérir l’avantage dans la concurrence à travers ces mesures, l’OMC a voulu limiter l’imposition arbitraire de mesures antidumping. Cependant, il s’avère que l’Accord antidumping ne peut pas remplir parfaitement cette mission, et qu’il est impossible de garantir la mise en œuvre du droit antidumping dans un cadre sans protectionnisme. Ainsi, nous ne pouvons pas négliger la valeur du droit antidumping, car il est encore en mesure d’inciter les pays à promouvoir le libre échange, en leur concédant le droit de protéger leurs intérêts dans des circonstances spécifiquement définies / There are two policies in the international commerce, the protectionism and the free trade. The free trade is accepted by the world, but it does not mean that the protectionism is wholly abandoned by the countries. On the contrary, it is applied in the forms which are difficult to detect, and it is hard to distinguish the protectionism among the antidumping actions with a legal pretext. The antidumping law provokes always the debate concerning the protectionism. Because of the national interest, the countries can not open the market completely, and WTO accords the power to the countries to limit the imports under the particular circumstances. The antidumping action could protect the national industries from the choc of the imports which get the benefits illegally. Although WTO wants to eliminate the arbitrary antidumping action, the antidumping agreement could not accomplish this mission, and it is impossible to exclude the protectionism thoroughly from the antidumping law. Nevertheless, we can not negate its value, because it can also urge the countries to promote the free trade at the cost of the allowance of la protection of the national interests to some degree

This thesis addresses issues of anti-dumping law and practice from a critical and juridical analysis position. In particular, the thesis seeks to determine whether the South African anti-dumping regime is compliant with the anti-dumping regime of the World Trade Organization (hereafter WTO), and to consider possible solutions for addressing instances where the South African law is not WTO compatible. The thesis departs from the hypothesis that the WTO merely requires functional equivalence of the implementation of national legislation on anti-dumping, and not the verbatim adoption of WTO jurisprudence and relevant provisions of the Agreement on the Implementation of Article VI of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade of 1994 (hereafter URAA), into the legislation of State Parties. Some of the provisions of the URAA are not completely clear, and are cast in convoluted and complicated technical jargon, leaving loopholes that may be justifiably exploited by State Parties. The study in this thesis was achieved through the critical analysis of legislation and relevant legal documents, case law and contemporary literature. The primary research paradigm used in this study is interpretive and analytical, which is the same as qualitative research methodology. The legal comparative research method, with a historical component, also played an important role in this study. The literature study undertaken and the critical analyses made of the South African anti-dumping regime show mixed findings. The South African antidumping regime was found to have both positive aspects and problematic aspects when compared with WTO regulations. Some of the critical areas of the South African anti-dumping regime are WTO compatible whilst others are not. In some areas the South African anti-dumping regime has adopted functionally equivalent provisions to the provisions of the WTO law. However, the practice of the International Trade Administration Commission (ITAC) is sometimes fraught with inconsistencies. The compatibility of the South African anti-dumping system with the WTO regime came close to being examined by the WTO on 1 April 1999 in the dispute of South Africa - Anti-dumping Duties on the Import of Certain Pharmaceutical Products from India based on allegations that the method for calculating normal value used by the ITAC was found to be inconsistent with the URAA. Similarly, the conformity of the procedures and findings of the International Trade and Administration Act (ITAA) in anti-dumping cases came under attack in the cases of Algorax v The International Trade Administration Commission and others, and Scaw v The International Trade Administration Commission and others, respectively. Finally, the thesis ends with recommendations in response to the challenges identified and key submissions made throughout the analysis. Key recommendations include the broadening of the concept of interested parties to include registered trade unions and trade union federations; introducing an explicit and mandatory "public Interests" provision to ensure that South Africa's anti-dumping administration is free from political trappings in the form of the involvement of the Minister of Trade and Industry; introducing the new section 31 bis of the ADR in order to allow the initiation of anti-dumping petitions by a registered trade union or trade union federation; providing procedural guidelines for self-initiation of anti-dumping petitions by the ITAC; increasing transparency in anti-dumping proceedings and enquires; setting realistic time-lines for all anti-dumping processes and ensuring compliance with the same; improving the institutional and functional capacity of the ITAC; amending section 18.3 of the ADR to allow search and seizure operations pursuant to the provisions of the Criminal Procedure Act 51 of 1977 and the Customs Act; having a clear provision on verification visits confidentiality and a clear provision on producer knowledge; introducing a clear provision in the ADR dealing explicitly with zeroing pursuant to Article 2.4.3 (ii) of URAA; and the introduction of duty refund procedures. It is hoped that the recommendations made in this thesis, which are in the form of suggested legislative interventions required to upgrade certain areas of South African anti-dumping law and practice to be fully WTO compliant, will influence the introduction of suitably crafted anti-dumping legislation in South Africa. It is further hoped that the thesis will become an invaluable source of information for practitioners and students, and a critical source on the best practice for the imposition and implementation of anti-dumping measures. Moreover, the thesis will add to the body of academic writing on South African anti-dumping law. / Thesis (PhD.(Law) North-Wets University, Mafikeng Campus, 2011

published_or_final_version / abstract / Law / Master / Doctor of Legal Studies

Mating behavior has a profound impact on reproductive success and the resulting genetic structure of offspring. Extra-pair copulation is a widely observed behavior within avian species. This study explored the genetic effects of mating behaviors of Prothonotary warblers, Protonotaria citrea (Parulidae), using co-dominant microsatellite markers. Prothonotary warblers are migratory songbirds that build nests in cavities, commonly found in wetland habitats. A set of artificial nest boxes were initiated by Dr Robert Reilly in 2002 in Dutch Gap, Chesterfield County Virginia, USA, a tidal tributary off the James River. From this population, 28 nest boxes were surveyed yielding 47 adults and 110 offspring. All individuals were genotyped and the multilocus genotypes were used to identify parentage. Using paternity exclusion, 27.2% of offspring were identified as resulting from extra-pair mating. Surprisingly, an additional 11.8% of offspring were classified as genetically unrelated to the resident female, being presumably the result of an egg dumping from a female not caught at the nest box. The vast majority of nest boxes, 82.1% in this study, had at least one offspring that was a result of a mating behavior outside of the social pair. There was also positive spatial autocorrelation in extra-pair paternity suggesting that these matings are not randomly distributed across the sampling landscape. These data show that Protonotaria citrea engage in both extra-pair copulations and nest parasitism. Whether this is normal mating behavior for the species, or something that is unique to this population is unknown.

Aujourd’hui, avec l’envolée mondiale du prix du pétrole, la question énergétique est devenue un sujet d’importance et la possibilité d’exploiter l’énergie ambiante connaitun regain d’attention. Ainsi dans cette thèse, nous nous intéressons aux dispositifs de récupération d’énergie piézoélectrique de vibration dont l’objectif final est de réaliser un réseau de capteurs sans fil (WSN) autonome de faible consommation d’énergie. L’idée est dans un premier temps de prolonger la durée de vie de la batterie, puis dans un second temps de rendrele capteur totalement autonome d’un point de vu énergétique. Les dispositifs actuels étant basés sur la vibration d’une poutre (résonateur mécanique), ils ne sont efficaces qu’à la résonance, avec une faible bande-passante. Ainsi dans ce travail, nous avons tout d’abord proposé une technique de décalage de la fréquence de résonance à l’aide de capacités commutées, cette techniqueréalise un ajustement de la fréquence de résonance en fonction de la fréquence de la source d’excitation et ainsipermetune augmentation de la puissance de sortie. Cette technique a été implémentée avec succès sur un module de capteur WSN avec transmissiond’un signal RF. Toujours dans l’objectif d’agrandir la bande-passante, un résonateur hybride (piézoélectrique/magnétique) bistable associé à une interface électrique (SSHI) a été proposé.Cenouveau et intéressant concept de combiner le résonateur hybride avec une interface à commutation de la tension piézoélectrique a montré, à l’aide de résultats expérimentaux et de simulation,que la puissance est augmentée sur une large bande passante.De plus, afin de rendre le système totalement autonome et de commander les interrupteurs de l’interface électriqueaux instants optimaux, une technique de détection du passage par zéro de la vitesse de vibration a été proposée. Les résultats montrent de bonnes performancesde cette méthode sur toutes lesinterfaces et résonateurs.Contrairement à la méthode classique de détection de la tension crête, la détection du passage par zéro de la vitesse est plus précise. La récupération d’énergie piézoélectrique engendrant un amortissement de la source vibrante, il est possible d’utiliser les mêmes interfaces électriques pour réaliser l’amortissement semi-passif de vibrations de structures mécaniques. Il s’agit d’extraire le maximum d’énergie de la structure en vibration à l’aide de l’élément piézoélectrique. Ainsi, afin de rendre les interfaces électriques pour l’amortissement (SSHD) totalement autonomes, nous avons proposé d’associer la récupération d’énergie piézoélectrique à l’amortissement de structure. L’avantage majeur est qu’il est seulement nécessaire de sacrifier légèrementles performances de l’amortissement pour rendre le système totalement autonome. Les performances ainsi que les limites de cette technique ont été analysées. / Nowadays with the world oil price soaring, the energy issue is becoming a significant topic and the possibility of harvesting ambient energy receiving much attention. In this dissertation, the main topic surrounds improving the piezoelectric energy harvesting device in several aspects and the final objective is to integrate it with low power consumption device, for example a wireless sensor network (WSN) node to extend the battery lifetime and further supply the energy to device directly. Based on the high mechanical quality factor of the structure, the output power of the piezoelectric energy harvesting device will decrease rapidly when the exciting frequency is out of the resonant frequency range. The tunable resonant frequency technique is proposed to broaden the resonant frequency range and increase the output power effectively. Then this technique is successfully combined with a WSN module to transmit the RF signal. To broaden resonant frequency another method is proposed, based on a bistable vibrating cantilever beam and a switching-type interface circuit (SSHI). It's a new and interesting concept to combine these two techniques. The magnets are used to make mechanical behavior non-linear and increase the output power at non-resonance. The SSHI technique through zero-velocity detection can work well when system is driven in non-linear system. The experimental and simulation results through work-cycles discussion show good performance of combining these two techniques. In the interface circuit design, synchronized switching harvesting on an inductor (SSHI) have been verified a successful technique to increase output power in low-coupling system. In order to make use of the SSHI technique in the real application, the velocity control self-powered SSHI (V-SSHI) system is proposed. Unlike the conventional peak detector technique, the zero-velocity detection is used to make the switching time more accurate. The energy flow is separated into three paths to construct the V-SSHI and the experimental results show good performance. When the system is not low-coupled, the SSHI technique will damp vibration.This technique is called SSDI (synchronized switching damping on an inductor). Based on the self-powered technique and zero-velocity detection used in the V-SSHI, these techniques are further applied in structural damping to construct a self-powered SSDI (SP-SSDI). The major advantage is that it is only necessary to sacrifice a small amount of damping performance to make the system fully self-powered. The theoretical analysis and experiment results of time domain comparison and frequency response testing show the limit and performance of the SP-SSDI technique. The SP-SSDI system is a like a feedback loop system and when the displacement is over the limit the SP-SSDI will effectively damp the vibration.

Notre thèse a pour but de réfléchir à cette question majeure, de tenter de résoudre cette impasse : le droit du commerce international contemporain a été élaboré à partir de principes libéraux pour réaliser la libre circulation des marchandises et des services (OMC, GATT, GATS…), sans toutefois tenir compte des différentes barrières culturelles internes des pays (par exemple en Chine), ni de considérations « autres que d’ordre commercial ». Comment dépasser les barrières internes ? Comment intégrer les valeurs non commerciales ? La Chine est à la fois une partie du problème et une partie de la solution à cette question. Une partie du problème en ce que les frictions entre les principes de libre circulation et les habitudes propres à une aire culturelle donnée sont particulièrement vivaces dans le cas de la Chine et font sans cesse surface dans le cadre des exigences de régulation. Une partie de la solution aussi en ce que son engagement pour les technologies vertes et les énergies renouvelables donne plus poids à la nécessité d’élargir les lois étroites du commerce pour prendre en compte les considérations autres que commerciales / This doctoral thesis will aim at addressing the following problematic issue: contemporary international trade law has been established on liberal (free trade) principles in order to allow the free movement of goods and services (WTO, GATT, GATS, etc.), without taking into account other countries internal cultural barriers (for example in China), or non-trade concerns (NTCs). How to overcome internal barriers? How to integrate non-trade concerns? China is part of the problem as well as part of the solution. On one hand frictions between global free-trade principles and local cultural habits are overwelhming present in China and continuously interfere with the requirements of trade regulation. On the other China’s involvement in green technology or renewable energies give more weigth to the necessity of extending the international trade framework to include non-trade concerns in its definition

Magister Legum - LLM / Over the past decade countries have embraced globalisation. The depth and influence of globalisation has grown significantly since the 19th century. Globalisation has accelerated mainly due to increased integration in trade with bilateral, regional and multilateral trade negotiations on the rise. Multinational companies have also enlarged which enable production to be done seamlessly in different countries, increase in capital flows such as purchase of assets and bonds has also contributed. Furthermore, the surge on technological innovations and advancement cannot be ignored when one speaks of globalisation this era has been dubbed the technological era additionally there is also the role of migration which enhances labor movements. The world has rapidly shrunk to one global economy. After the World War II countries began to move away from protectionism to liberalised trade and this resulted in the formation of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) then the World Trade Organisation (WTO) which is comprised of 164-member states. The WTO regulates trade and promotes free trade. Over the years the organisation has been evolving to deal with issues such as climate and technical assistance. Global trade presents challenges which may give rise to the need for countries to protect their domestic industries for political and economic reasons.

Thesis (Ph.D.)--University of the Witwatersrand, Faculty of Commerce, Law and Management, School of Law / The research is divided in seven sections where the problem of the interpretation and applicability of Art XXIII GATT to the Laws and Practices under the Anti-Dumping Agreement is examined. Chapter I identifies the problems, raises the research question and gives an overview of the current state of the matters under observation. In Chapter II the general theory of interpretation is studied and subsequently applied to Art XXIII specifically, taking into account the meaning, scope, historical evolution and current interpretations of Art XXIII. Chapter III revises the theory of coherent interpretation of Art XXIII in connection with the Anti-Dumping Agreement specifically. The constitutional structure and principles of the WTO are questioned, dissected and supported to decant a handful of fundamental principles which shall inform the rest of the interpretation applied in the research. This chapter takes the interpretation from an abstract perspective to a material view of a coherent interpretation of both Art. XXIII and the Anti-Dumping Agreement. Chapter IV revises the facts, laws and practices of Anti-Dumping being used as a protectionist measure in disguise both using procedural and substantial arguments which are illustrated in the laws and practices of seven countries. The findings in Chapter IV lead to Chapter V which questions the legitimacy and validity of considering the possible applicability of Art XXIII to the anti-Dumping Agreement as it is currently implemented by the WTO membership. Those reflections lead to the consideration and mention of Competition as a public good in international trade in Chapter VI, which is a key element for the final findings of this research. The conclusion of this research is inclined to suggest that in order to keep the legal system of the WTO functional, a stronger economic constitutional approach that allows for the application of art XXIII in situations subversive to the principles of free trade is necessary. The adaptation of a theory of an economic constitution is proposed.

O objetivo deste trabalho é indicar a importância da consideração do interesse público nas investigações antidumping, análise que não pode ser feita sem a definição prévia de critérios a serem utilizados por todos os Membros da OMC, evitando, assim, uma aplicação discriminatória. Se a definição do interesse público pretende ser obrigatória, como parece ser o resultado buscado pelos Membros da OMC no estado atual das negociações, é fundamental que sejam definidos parâmetros claros, que devem ser seguidos por todos os Membros. Caso contrário, a busca do interesse público pode aumentar, ainda mais, a insegurança e a imprevisibilidade que circundam as investigações antidumping, desmotivando partes interessadas a contribuir para a busca da verdade e da melhor solução para o contexto interno de cada país. / L´objet de ce travail est d´indiquer l´importance de la compréhension de l´intérêt public dans les enquêtes antidumping, une analyse qui ne saurait pas être faite sans une définition préalable des critères à être utilisés par tous les Membres de l´OMC, évitant ainsi une application discriminatoire. Au cas où la définition de l´intérêt devient obligatoire, ce qui s´applique au résultat recherché par les Membres de l´OMC selon la situation actuelle des négociations, il est fondamental de définir des parâmètres claires et uniformes, devant être suivis par tous les Membres. Au contraire, la recherche de l´intérêt public peut s´accroître, ainsi que l´insécurité et l´imprévisibilité qui entourent les enquêtes antidumping démotivant les parties intéressées à contribuer à la recherche de la vérité, ainsi que de la meilleure solution pour le contexte interne de chaque pays.

En el marco de la creación e innovación, existen quienes crean obras y se benefician de la explotación de las mismas, quienes son usuarios de obras y claro, quienes son usuarios ilícitos de dichas obras y se aprovechan indebidamente de las mismas. En el caso de los programas de ordenador, el carácter utilitario de estas creaciones permiten que formen parte de nuestra vida cotidiana y de la vida empresarial, sea como producto estrella o como herramienta para las áreas de soporte al giro principal del negocio, de ahí que coadyuvan a generar valor en las empresas que luego repercute en el crecimiento económico del país, el incremento del acervo tecnológico, y la generación de beneficios a diversos grupos de interés (accionistas, gobierno, sociedad, comunidad, colaboradores, etc.) Este carácter particular de los programas de ordenador ha generado que se recoja su protección bajo el derecho de autor, aunque de una manera sui generis lo que se refleja en la existencia de presunciones de titularidad, cesión de derechos, contenidos de licencia, originalidad,y ha marcado la tendencia para que mayor cantidad de personas puedan tener acceso a bienes a través del denominado software libre. El problema del uso indebido de programas de ordenador configura delito a nivel penal como constituye también una infracción en la vía administrativa, sin perjuicio de las acciones civiles por daños y perjuicios que correspondan. Así, es posible que el uso no autorizado de programas de ordenador y los signos que los identifican puedan generar diversos procedimientos administrativos sancionadores que no se pueden acumular en uno solo dadas las competencias de las comisiones y direcciones del INDECOPI. Sin embargo, surge un problema en la legitimidad para obrar dado que se necesita acreditar la titularidad de un derecho de autor sobre un programa de ordenador o un derecho de propiedad industrial relacionado a signos que distinguen programas de ordenador o productos o servicios relacionados. Ello puede ser limitado dado que el uso no autorizado de programas de ordenador puede afectar a personas que no son titulares, pudiendo generarse un aprovechamiento del esfuerzo ajeno dado que no se obtiene la licencia respectiva y sin embargo se explotan bienes intelectuales de terceros pudiendo generar beneficios económicos indebidos, distorsiones en el mercado no deseadas, ventajas competitivas injustificadas y daños concurrenciales alejados de los deseados y perseguidos en relación a la buena fe comercial. La pregunta que nos formulamos entonces es si el programa de ordenador –softwareadquirido de manera ilícita puede configurar un acto de competencia desleal. De ser así, cuál es la relación entre la propiedad intelectual y la competencia desleal, qué supuesto de competencia desleal configuraría y qué tipo de concurso de infracciones ocurren a nivel administrativo. Para desarrollar y dar respuestas a estas inquietudes, comenzaremos por desarrollar el esquema legal en torno a la protección diferenciada y particular (sui generis) de los programas de ordenador bajo el derecho de autor, haciendo mención a los derechos de propiedad industrial que podrían estar relacionados, luego abordaremos el esquema legal de tipo penal civil y administrativo de protección de derechos en torno a los programas de ordenador que justifican la legitimación activa restringida al titular de derechos. Finalmente enfocaremos la aplicación de la normativa de competencia desleal para estos casos como una rama que tiene una relación de complementariedad con los derechos de propiedad industrial y derechos de autor que permita corregir este defecto en la normativa en cuanto a la legitimidad para obrar limitada exclusivamente a los titulares de derechos y que permita proteger el proceso competitivo y sus efectos en el mercado nacional e internacional. Si bien a nivel de jurisprudencia, legislación y doctrina existe literatura respecto a software y las consecuencias legales de su uso indebido bajo el derecho de autor, salvo el caso norteamericano existe muy poca referencia sobre las consecuencias de dicho uso indebido en el marco del Derecho de la Competencia Desleal, por lo que consideramos que este trabajo puede ser útil para abrir un nuevo debate que pueda repercutir en un mensaje más claro a todos los agentes del mercado acerca de la importancia de contar con las respectivas licencias de uso de dichos programas, no solamente para proteger el interés de un titular, sino para proteger la transparencia del proceso competitivo. / Tesis