This diploma thesis deals with the topic of an employee's duty of confidentiality in a basic labour relationship. It seeks to find an answer to the question of whether there is some kind of a "general" employee's duty of confidentiality of certain facts, to which all the employees must oblige. The Czech Labour Code does not explicitly define this duty. If a general duty does not exist, it would have to be stipulated contractually. This diploma thesis is divided into four parts. The first part pays attention to the duty of confidentiality as such. It focuses on its content because it is essential to clarify what the "duty of confidentiality" means. Definitions of the duty of confidentiality created by different expert literature authors are covered in this part including the definition created by the author of this thesis. The second part represents the core of this diploma thesis since it deals with an employee's duty of confidentiality as it is stipulated by the Labour Code. The author addresses the so-called "special" duties of confidentiality which are explicitly stated in the Labour Code for certain groups of employees. Moreover, this part examines the general duty of confidentiality applicable to all employees who carry out work based on a concluded basic labour relationship. An employee's...

SAMMANFATTNING Syftet med uppsatsen har varit att beskriva och analysera gällande rätt, vad avser förhållandet mellan den kommunala arbetstagarens rättigheter till yttrandefrihet kontra den lojalitetsplikt som denne genom anställningsavtalet har gentemot sin arbetsgivare. Eftersom det finns en hel del praxis inom området främst från Justitieombudsmannen (JO), eftersom det rör sig om kommunal verksamhet, använder jag mig i uppsatsen av flera uttalanden och beslut från denna instans. Yttrandefriheten är en av de mest grundläggande rättigheterna i ett demokratiskt samhälle och är i Sverige en grundlagsfäst rättighet. Rätten att fritt kunna uttrycka sin uppfattning är viktig för att information skall kunna spridas, och att alla skall kunna vara med och påverka samhället via dialog och debatt. Teknikens utveckling och sociala mediers utbredning gör att information och åsikter blir lättillgängliga för en stor krets av mottagare. Att använda sig av sociala medier och via bloggar och facebook ge uttryck för åsikter och attityder blir allt mer frekvent förekommande, och det är inte helt ovanligt att man som arbetstagare kommenterar sin arbetsplats, chef eller verksamheten man är anställd inom. Arbetstagaren i den kommunala verksamheten har ett förstärkt skydd för sin yttrandefrihet gentemot arbetsgivaren (det allmänna) genom den grundlagsfästa meddelarfriheten och meddelarskyddet. I uppsatsen redogör jag för de rättigheter och det skydd som den kommunala arbetstagaren har när det gäller att utnyttja sin yttrandefrihet i form av kritiska uttalanden gentemot arbetsgivaren. Förutom rättigheten att uttrycka kritik gentemot sin arbetsgivare har den kommunala arbetstagaren också skyldigheter att anmäla missförhållanden inom vissa områden, Detta via lex Maria och lex Sarah, vilket jag också redogör för. I uppsatsen beskriver jag även det betänkande som i april i år (2011) presenterats angående lex Sarah inom skolan. I uppsatsen konstaterar jag att rätten till yttrandefrihet går före den lojalitetsplikt som i och med anställningsavtalets ingående uppstår. Jag konstaterar att lojalitetsplikten i kommunal verksamhet inte existerar när det gäller negativa eller kritiska yttranden gentemot arbetsgivaren. Lojalitetsplikten handlar för den kommunala arbetstagaren i själva verket enbart om hur man skall utföra sina arbetsuppgifter, inte vad arbetstagaren uttrycker om sin arbetsgivare. / Abstract The purpose of this essay is to explain and analyze the law, how the relations between the municipal employee towards freedom of speech work against the duty of loyalty the employee has towards the employer through the employment contract. Because of the high amount of standardized practice within this field, especially from the ombudsman, and because this essay is about the municipal functions, the essay will consist of multiple statements and decisions from these instances. The freedom of speech is one of the most fundamental rights in a democratic society – and in Sweden a right that is supported by the constitution. The right to freely express your own opinion is important for the information to spread, and for everybody to be able to affect the society via dialog and debate. The technological development and social media’s spread make information and opinions more accessible to a larger audience. The use of this kind of media such as blogs and the extensive use of Facebook to express opinions and different attitudes become used more frequently, it is not uncommon for a employee to make comments about his or hers workplace, boss or the field of work in one of these digital medias. The Employee in the municipal operation has a strong protection when it comes to freedom of speech towards the employer, through the constitutional freedom of information and the protection of sources. The essay will cover the rights and the protections that the municipal employees have when it comes to the use of freedom of speech in criticism towards the employer. Aside from the right to express criticism towards the employer, the municipal employee also have obligations to address anomalies within some fields, which will be described in the essay. Lex Maria and lex Sarah regulate this. I also describe a report that just has been presented concerning the lex Sarah in schools. In the essay I note that the freedom of speech will be prioritized before the duty of loyalty the employee has against the employer. And I note that the duty of loyalty in municipal operations does not exist when it comes to negative opinions or criticism against the employer. The duty of loyalty for the municipal employee is only about how the employer should carry out his work duties, and not what the employee, express about their employer.

During the last part of the 20th century many companies has started to build their organizations on knowledge and information instead of manufacturing of products.  Today it is easier to communicate and spread information. At the same time the numbers of untraditional employments like temporary employments and workers from staffing agencies are increasing. Many organizations have higher employee turnover now than before. This allows more people to have access to confidential information, whose spreading might cause great damage for the employer. This essay aims to look into the protection of confidential information for the client against offenses from staffing agency workers that are working within the clients’ organization. Protection of confidential information is included in the duty of loyalty in terms of confidentiality, protection of trade secrets and competition clauses. Duty of loyalty lies within the employment contract between the agency employer and the staffing agency. Therefore the agency employer has no duty to be loyal against the client. For the agency worker to be able to perform the required work duties he or she might be provided with confidential information. Spreading of this information could cause damage for the client. Can the rules of justice that regulates duty of loyalty be applied on the relationship between the client and the agency worker?  What are the consequences of the rules that exist today? This essay is written with a juridical method and with sociology of law perspective. Other parts of the duty of loyalty is not included as well as the duty of loyalty for the employer. The conclusion is that the staffing agency is responsible for indemnity towards the client if an agency employer reviles confidential information about the clients’ organization.  Some rules of justice can be interpreted as an expression that duty of loyalty lays between the client and the agency worker. For example, the agency worker is bound by confidentiality in terms of the conditions at the clients’ organization.  Suggestions of changes in the regulations about protection of confidential information will force the agency worker to pay indemnity to the client if he or she reviles confidential information.   In staffing agencies there are twice as many immigrants than in the regular labor market. The rules of duty of loyalty can contribute to a holdback for immigrants that are working in staffing agencies. Immigrants will be at bigger risk of standing outside the general labor market than people born in Sweden because of static discrimination. / Företag har under senare delen av 1900-talet gått från traditionell varuproduktion till att allt mer bygga sin verksamhet på information och kunskap. Den tekniska utvecklingen har gjort det lättare att överföra och sprida kunskap i samhället vilket ökar sårbarheten hos företagen. Icke- traditionella anställningar såsom tidsbegränsade anställningar och inhyrd arbetskraft ökar och företag har en högre personalomsättning nu än tidigare. Fler personer får tillgång till företagsspecifik information och spridning av den skulle kunna skada arbetsgivaren. I min uppsats undersöker jag skyddet av hemlig information för arbetsgivare som hyr in arbetskraft från ett personaluthyrningsföretag. Skydd för hemlig information ingår i den så kallade lojalitetsplikten i form av tystnadsplikt, skydd för företagshemlighet och konkurrensklausuler. Lojalitetplikt föreligger i anställningsavtalet mellan uthyrd arbetstagare och uthyrningsföretaget men arbetstagarens arbetsprestation utförs hos kunden. Kan regleringar kring lojalitetsplikt tillämpas på förhållandet mellan kund och inhyrd arbetstagare? Vad blir konsekvenserna av de regler som finns idag? Uppsatsen är skriven med juridisk metod som har sin utgångspunkt i rättskälleläran samt med rättssociologisk angreppssätt. Andra delar av lojalitetsplikt såsom upplysningsskyldighet, bisysslor eller kritikrätt behandlas inte i uppsatsen, ej heller lojalitetsplikt för arbetsgivaren. Slutsatsen är att uthyrningsföretaget står för den uthyrde arbetstagarens handlingar mot kundföretaget eftersom det föreligger lojalitetsförpliktelser i uthyrningsavtalet mellan kund och uthyrare. Uthyraren står för exempelvis skadestånd om en arbetstagare röjer eller utnyttjar en företagshemlighet hos kunden. Vissa regleringar ger uttryck för att det föreligger lojalitetsplikt mellan kund och inhyrd arbetstagare. Exempelvis är den uthyrda arbetstagaren bunden av tystnadsplikt vad det gäller förhållanden hos kunden. I ett förslag från regeringen på kommande ändringar i lagstiftningen kommer den inhyrde arbetstagaren bli direkt skadeståndsansvarig vid röjande eller utnyttjande av företagshemlighet hos kunden. I uthyrningsbranschen finns dubbelt så stor andel utlandsfödda arbetstagare som på arbetsmarknaden generellt. På grund av hur regleringen kring lojalitetsplikt ser ut idag kan den bidra till inlåsningseffekter för utlandsfödda arbetstagare som arbetar i uthyrningsbranschen. Skilda villkor för svensk- och utlandsfödda såsom statisk diskriminering på arbetsmarknaden gör att utlandsfödda arbetstagare löper större risk än svenskfödda arbetstagare att få stå utanför den traditionella arbetsmarknaden.

La première source de la business judgment rule a été la jurisprudence. Celle-ci a été la source des codifications incitatives et contraignantes. Nos recherches ont mis en évidence deux types de formulations de la business judgment rule. Le premier type est la formulation prétorienne lato sensu et stricto sensu. Le second type est la formulation codifiée (Model Business Corporation Act, Corporate Director's Guidebook, Principles of Corporate Governance, lois limitant la responsabilité personnelle des dirigeants). De plus, nos recherches ont dégagé 9 types de termes qui se retrouvent dans tous les types des formulations. Les 4 premiers types de termes correspondent respectivement (1) aux pouvoirs des dirigeants et à leur discrétion, (2) au statut des dirigeants, (3) aux devoirs des dirigeants, (4) aux degrés de devoirs requis et à la gravité de la transgression de ces devoirs sanctionnée (standard of conduct). Les cinq types de termes suivants correspondent respectivement (1) au droit à l'erreur, (2) à la présomption de comportement/conduite, (3) au refus d'un contrôle judiciaire, (4) à la charge de la preuve, (5) à la justification de la business judgment rule (standard of revision). Les deux différences fondamentales entre les formulations de la business judgment rule sont les suivantes. La première différence se situe au niveau des conditions d'application de la règle et concerne la relation entre le standard de conduite, c'est-à-dire le type des devoirs, le degré des devoirs et la gravité de la transgression des devoirs, et le standard de responsabilité, c'est-à-dire les devoirs examinés quand la business judgment rule s'applique. La seconde différence fondamentale entre les formulations se situe au niveau des effets de la règle et concerne l'étendue d'un contrôle judiciaire sur le résultat de l'action ou de l'omission des dirigeants, c'est-à-dire le prix grossièrement inadéquat, l'abus de discrétion, le dépassement grossier, etc. / The first source of the « business judgment rule » is the jurisprudence. The jurisprudence was the source of the « soft law » and « hard law » codifications. The research showed two types of formulations of the « business judgment rule ». The first type is the jurisprudence formulation lato sensu_and stricto sensu. The second type is the codification formulation (Mode) Business Corporation Act, Corporate Director's Guidebook, Principles of Corporate Governance, lois limitant la responsabilité personnelle des dirigeants). The research showed nine types of terms which may be found in the formulations of the « business judgment rule». The first four terms correspond respectively to (1) the powers of the governors of the corporation and their discretion ; (2) their status ; (3) their duties, and (4) the degree of their duties. This first type of terms constitutes the standard of conduct. The next five types of terms correspond respectively to (1) the right to the error; (2) the presumption of the conduct; (3) the refusal of judicial review; (4) the burden of proof; (5) the justification of the « business judgment rule ». This second type of terms constitutes the standard of revision. There are two fundamental differences between the formulations of the « business judgment rule ». The first difference is situated at the level of the conditions of application of the « business judgment rule », and concerns the relations between the standard of conduct and the standard of revision. The second difference is situated at the level of the effects of the « business judgment rule » and concerns the scope of judicial review.

Diploma thesis - abstract Due managerial care and diligence as a criterion for the determination of liability (a legal and comparative analysis) Lucie Krtoušová The purpose of this thesis is to critically analyse the interpretation of the concept of the due managerial care and diligence and consider the requirements that a director must comply with. The method used in this paper is the comparative analysis. As a basis of the comparative analysis it is chosen the British concept of fiduciary duties and duty of care, skill and diligence which is compared with the Czech concept of the care of a prudent manager. The thesis is composed of five chapters, each of them dealing with different aspects of the concept of the due managerial care and diligence. Chapter One is introductory and defines basic terminology used in the thesis such as the director, the care of a prudent manager, the duty of loyalty, fiduciary duties and the duty of care, skill and diligence. Chapter Two examines the British concept of fiduciary duties. The chapter consists of five parts. Part One focuses on introduction into the system of general duties of directors. Part Two explains the fiduciary position of a director. Part Three and Four address the two aspects of the duty of loyalty, i.e. the duty to act in the interest of the company and...

My thesis focuses on one of the fundamental issues of representation of stock corporations by their elected bodies or members of these bodies. This issue concerns the responsibility of these parties to act in the performance of their duties with due managerial care which is a key aspect in determining the standard required from the parties representing a limited liability company and a joint stock company. This topic is extremely relevant to the current situation due to recent re- codification of private law, whose linchpins are Act No. 89/2012 Coll., the Civil Code, and Act No. 90/2012 Coll. on business companies and cooperatives (the Act on Business Corporations). The authors of these regulations during their drafting had to cope with the development of both the doctrine and the case law and their task was not only to adapt the legislation to the commercial law practice of stock corporations of the 21st century, but also to resolve some of its contentious issues. The thesis consists of an introduction, three main chapters further subdivided into subsections and the conclusion. The first chapter deals with the legal regulation and the description of the concept of due managerial care and related aspects at the time of effectiveness of Act No. 513/1991 Coll., the Commercial Code. Particular...

IN ENGLISH The purpose of this paper is to analyse all segments of the duty of due managerial care of member of an elective body of a limited company and propose de lege ferenda approach to segments of the duty. Another goal of this master's thesis was to examine new business judgment rule and present an alternative British model of the rule. To provide a comparative approach the paper utilizes the British company law approach. The first chapter introduces the origin of the duty of due managerial care, in particular its roots in Roman law and Austrian civil code. The second chapter is divided into five subchapters. The first subchapter highlights the recent changes to the duty of due managerial care after recodification of private law. The second subchapter examines duty of care as one of two integral parts of the duty of due managerial care. Firstly, it analyzes the quality of care expected of directors. Secondly, it focuses on the test for determination of necessary standard of care. Thirdly, following a critical examination of the test for determination of a standard of care, the paper suggests de lege ferenda test of due care. Finally, the first subchapter considers the British duty of care, skill and diligence. The third subchapter covers the duty of loyalty including duties derived from it...

IN ENGLISH Criminal liability for breach of the duty of due managerial care The aim of this thesis is to analyze the duty of due managerial care and its attributes for the members of the statutory bodies of the capital companies including the rule of entrepreneurial judgment, the instructions of the General Meeting, the delegation of powers of the statutory body of entrepreneurial judgment and the criminal law aspects of the violation of the care of a goodman. The diploma thesis consists of four chapters. The first chapter briefly describes the basic issues of capital companies. The second chapter deals with the duty of due managerial care of the statutory bodies of capital companies and its attributes, emphasizing the changes brought about by the recodification of private law. First, the duty of loyalty is analyzed, as one of the basic stones of duty of care of a good manager, then attention is paid to the expected care and the approach of its definition. The third chapter deals with general parts of criminal law, which first deals with the possibility of using criminal law, and the attention is then paid to the subjective side and unlawful circumstances. The circumstance of exclusion of illegality is highlighted by a mistake, especially in the context of expert advice, by its influence on...

This diploma thesis deals with the regulation of the duty of due managerial care of members of a governing body of a limited company. The aim is to evaluate Czech national law with respect to the relevant British law rules. Another objective is to propose de lege ferenda amendments to current state of law. The thesis is divided into three chapters The first chapter defines the duty of due managerial care and the content of duties imposed on members of a governing body of a company in Great Britain. Judicial decisions of both jurisdictions reveal that directors are not expected to have a knowledge possessed by a specialist. However, good general knowledge is required. Subsequently, the dual objective / subjective standard is introduced. Lord Hoffmann borrowed the test set by the Insolvency Act 1986 and stated that such a test should not just apply during insolvency. The second chapter is dedicated to fiduciary duties and the position of duty of loyalty within the scope of due managerial care. The aim is to present the subjective test covering acts exercised to promote the success of a company. The standard rests upon the idea that directors must exercise their discretion bona fide in what they consider, not what the court may consider, is in the interest of the company. Another field of interest is...

La thèse examine la responsabilité civile des dirigeants de sociétés anonymes en droit vietnamien et droit français. Il s’agit d’une première étude académique qui aborde l’état actuel du droit vietnamien de la responsabilité civile des dirigeants des sociétés anonymes et fait des comparaisons avec celui de l’actuel ordre juridique français. Quels avantages pourrait-il y avoir à aborder une étude du droit vietnamien touché par des illustrations en droit français ? Les deux pays sont proches sur le plan juridique. Le droit de la responsabilité civile des dirigeants de sociétés n’échappe pas à cette réalité. La responsabilité civile des dirigeants reste fondée sur la faute, mais elle a connu certaines adaptations. Le système actuellement existant dans chacun des deux pays s’est vu par ailleurs complété par des nouvelles sources, justifiées par la mondialisation. Le droit français est très riche en illustrations jurisprudentielles alors que le droit vietnamien est purement théorique et caractérisée par les nouveaux concepts prêtés des principes proposés par la doctrine anglo-saxonne du gouvernement d’entreprise. Ainsi, la conclusion qui s’en dégage est que certaines dispositions du droit français pourraient utilement inspirer le législateur vietnamien et vice versa. / The thesis examines the personal liability of public limited companies directors in Vietnamese law and French law. This is the first academic literature that addresses the current rules on the civil liability of directors of limited companies in Vietnamese law. What benefit is there be to conduct a study of Vietnamese law affected by French law? The two countries are close in law. The law of civil liability of corporate directors does not escape from this fact. Liability of director remains based on fault, but it has experienced some adaptations. The existing system in each country was also supplemented by new sources which are justified by globalization process. French law is then very rich jurisprudential illustrations while Vietnamese law is purely theoretical and characterized by new concepts borrowed from the corporate governance doctrine of common law. Thus, the conclusion that emerges is that some provisions of French law could usefully inspire the Vietnamese legislator and vice versa.