Laser Doppler Vibrometry (LDV) is a non-contact technique for sensing surface vibrations. Traditionally, LDV uses one or more fixed beams to measure the vibrational velocity of specific points and orientations. In order to measure an angular velocity at least two laser beams are required. Instead, this research proposes to develop a Continuous Scanning Laser Doppler Vibrometer (CSLDV) technique, based on a single laser beam continuously sweeping the area of interest using a scanning mirror. Linear scans allow the measurement of normal and angular velocity while circular scans allow the measurement of normal velocity and two angular velocities. The first part of the study analyzes the performance of rigid body models of both the short line and circular scans (< 1 cm) for measuring low broadband frequency vibrations of gel samples. This thesis focused on low frequency broadband vibration since natural human body vibrations (such as tremor or breathing) are typically below a few hundred hertz. Results for normal and angular velocity measurements are validated against conventional method of using two fixed LDVs. The second part of this research investigates the CSLDV technique for longer scans (< 5 cm). These long scans will be used to act as an array of virtual transducers at multiple points along the scanning path of the single laser beam; thus yielding similar information obtained using an array of several real fixed LDVs. A practical challenge encountered when using CSLDV is speckle noise, that is generated when a coherent light source is reflected back from an optically rough surface. The effect of speckle noise will be quantified by varying different parameters such as scan lengths, scanning frequency, target to sensor distance and the amplitude of excitation. These parameters will be optimized in order to reduce the error of vibration measurements obtained from the CSLDV. Such systems will be used to monitor multiple degrees of freedom of human skeletal muscle vibrations for elastography purposes. The forced vibration of human muscles will be analyzed using these CSLDV techniques. Overall contributions of this work include: (1) Validation of rigid body models of both short line and circular scans CSLDV for broadband low frequency linear and angular velocity measurements; (2) application to sensing natural human body vibrations (e.g., hand tremors); (3) replacement of an array of vibration sensors by a single long line scan CSLDV. (4) development of a dynamic elastography technique for skeletal muscles using CSLDV.

This work describes the development of an optical probe for measuring movement of tissue particles deep inside which are loaded by an ultrasound remote palpation device. The principle of the method is that ultrasound force which can be applied inside the tissue makes the tissue particles vibrate and this vibration phase-modulates the light intercepting the insoniified region which results in a modulated speckle intensity on detection outside the object. This speckle intensity modulation detected through the measured intensity autocorrelation is a measure of the vibration amplitude. Since the vibration amplitude is related to the local elastic properties of the medium, the measured modulation depth in intensity autocorrelation can be used to map the elastic property in the insonified region. In this work, first the ultrasound induced force is calculated for both plane and focused ultrasound beams, and converted to amplitude of vibration and refractive index modulation, solving the forward elastography equation. Light propagation inside an insonified object is modelled using Monte Carlo simulation and the amplitude and intensity correlations are computed. The modulation depth on the autocorrelation is estimated and shown that it is inversely correlated to the local elastic modulus and optical absorption coefficient. It is further shown that whereas the variation in modulation depth is linear with respect to absorption coefficient, the same variation with elastic property is nonlinear. These results are verified experimentally in a tissue mimicking phantom. The phantom was constructed out of poly vinyl alcohol(PVA) whose optical, mechanical and acoustic properties are independently controlled. It is also shown that for loading with focused ultrasound beam the displacement is almost along the ultrasound transducer axis and therefore the contribution from refractive index modulation alone can be ascertained by probing the insonified perpendicular to the transducer axis. This helps one to find the contribution to the modulation depth from the ultrasound-induced vibration, which can be used to compute a quantitative estimate of the elastic modulus from the modulation depth.

L’exploration du tissu cutané est aujourd’hui limitée par le peu de méthodes dites quantitatives permettant de décrire objectivement les propriétés mécaniques du tissu cutané. L’élastographie permet une exploration locale d’un milieu et offre la possibilité pour certaines méthodes d’estimer quantitativement le module d’élasticité (module d’Young). Nous avons mis au point une technique d’élastographie ultrasonore impulsionnelle haute fréquence 1D (HF-TE) et haute résolution permettant une description micrométrique des propriétés mécaniques du tissu cutané pour des applications en cosmétique et en dermatologie. / Nowadays, exploration of cutaneous tissue is limited by the few number of available approaches, known as quantitative methods, allowing an objective description of the mechanical properties of skin tissue. Elastography allows a local exploration of a medium and offers the possibility for some strategies to quantitatively estimate the modulus of elasticity (Young’s modulus). A 1-D high-frequency ultrasonic transient elastography method (HF-TE) allowing a micrometric description of the mechanical properties of skin tissue has been designed for cosmetic and dermatological applications. An experimental system of high-frequency transient elastography has been developed : software, hardware and measurement methodology. The HF-TE technique has been validated using simulation and measurements in monolayer and bilayer calibrated phantoms developed in the laboratory. The Young’s modulus values measured in monolayer media were then compared with those measured by two others dynamic techniques.

A teoria de elasticidade linear clássica é utilizada no modelamento de problemas da física médica relacionados com a determinação de parâmetros elásticos de tecidos biológicos a partir da medição in vivo, ou, in vitro dos deslocamentos, ou, das deformações. Baseados em observações experimentais, as quais revelam que os tecidos biológicos anômalos têm comportamento mecânico diferente dos tecidos biológicos sadios, os pesquisadores têm modelado estes tecidos como sólidos elástico-lineares, isotrópicos, heterogêneos e incompressíveis. Neste trabalho, analisa-se uma classe de problemas planos relacionados à determinação do módulo de elasticidade ao cisalhamento µ de tecidos biológicos e propõe-se um procedimento numérico não-iterativo para obter soluções aproximadas para estes problemas a partir de campos de deslocamentos conhecidos de ensaios possíveis de serem realizados em laboratório. Os ensaios são estáticos e são simulados numericamente via método dos elementos finitos. Apresentam-se resultados obtidos das distribuições de µ em cilindros retos, longos e de seção retangular contendo inclusões cilíndricas circulares centradas, ou, excêntricas. Consideram-se inclusões mais, ou, menos rígidas do que o meio elástico circundante. Adicionalmente, os resultados obtidos no presente trabalho são comparados com resultados de outros pesquisadores que utilizam ensaios dinâmicos. Neste sentido, dois casos de inclusão circular centrada são resolvidos com as condições de contorno adaptadas do caso dinâmico para o caso estático. Resolve-se finalmente o caso de uma inclusão de forma geométrica complexa e seis vezes mais rígida do que o entorno. O cilindro contendo esta inclusão está submetido às condições de contorno propostas neste trabalho e também às condições de contorno adaptadas do caso dinâmico. Em todos os casos analisados os resultados são satisfatórios, apesar do emprego de uma quantidade reduzida de elementos finitos na reconstrução de µ. Deve-se ressaltar que nenhum método de regularização foi utilizado para tratar os deslocamentos obtidos dos ensaios simulados. Este trabalho é de grande interesse na detecção de tumores cancerígenos, tais como tumores nos seios e na próstata, e no diagnóstico diferenciado de tecidos biológicos. / The theory of classical linear elasticity is used to model of problems in medical physics that are related to the determination of elastic parameters of biological tissues from the measurement in vivo, or, in vitro of either displacements or strains. Based on experimental observations, which indicate that the abnormal biological tissues have different mechanical behavior from normal biological tissues, researchers have modeled these tissues as an incompressible, heterogeneous, and isotropic linear elastic solid. In this work a class of plane problems related to the determination of the shear elastic modulus µ of biological tissues is examined. A non-iterative numerical procedure to obtain an approximate solution to these problems from known displacement fields is proposed. The displacement fields are obtained from experiments that are possible to reproduce in laboratory. The experiments are quasi-static and are simulated numerically using the finite element method. Results for the distribution of µ in long, straight cylinders of rectangular cross-sections, containing either centered or eccentric circular inclusions that are more, or, less stiff than the surrounding elastic medium, are presented. Additionally, the results obtained in this study are compared with results of other researchers who use dynamical experiments. In this sense, two cases of centered circular inclusions are solved by using an adaptation of the dynamical case to the static case. Finally, the case of an inclusion with a complex geometry that is six times more rigid than the surrounding medium is solved. In all cases analyzed, the results are satisfactory, despite the fact that they were obtained with a reduced number of finite elements. It should be noted that no method of regularization has been used to treat the displacement data obtained from the simulated experiments. This work is of great interest in the detection of cancerous tumours, such as those in the breasts and in the prostate, and in the differential diagnosis of biological tissues.

Chronic liver diseases are the eighth leading cause of death in Brazil and a major public health problem in the world. Liver biopsy is the best available reference standard for evaluating and classifying stages of liver diseases, but it presents limitations and complications that are common in invasive methods. In recent years, elasticity imaging methods have been the focus of intense research activity with the ability to measure mechanical properties of soft tissues in a non-invasive way. Shear wave elastography is one of the most promising methods because it enables to quantitatively assess tissue elasticity. However, the current depth range of shear wave elastography impedes its application in obese patients, which have a great risk of developing liver disease. The aim of this study is to investigate the use of shear wave elastography in deeper tissues using a two-dimensional ultrasound transducer array. An efficient transducer array arrangement was simulated, fabricated and characterized. The results show that the proposed transducer configuration presents enhanced transmitting capabilities for generating tissue displacement in deeper tissues. In addition, numerical simulations were performed in order to track the tissue deformation and reconstruct its elastic properties. / Doenças crônicas do fígado são a oitava causa de morte no Brasil e um dos principais problemas de saúde pública do mundo. A biópsia do fígado é o melhor padrão de referência disponível para avaliação e classificação dos estágios das doenças hepáticas, mas apresenta limitações e complicações que são comuns nos métodos invasivos. Nos últimos anos, métodos de imagem por elasticidade têm sido o foco de intensa atividade de pesquisa, pois têm a capacidade de medir propriedades mecânicas dos tecidos moles de maneira não invasiva. A elastografia por ondas de cisalhamento é um dos métodos mais promissores, pois permite avaliar quantitativamente a elasticidade do tecido. No entanto, a atual faixa de profundidade da elastografia por ondas de cisalhamento impede sua aplicação em pacientes obesos, que apresentam grande risco de desenvolver doença hepática. O objetivo deste estudo é investigar o uso da elastografia por onda de cisalhamento em tecidos mais profundos usando um transdutor de ultrassom bidimensional. Uma configuração eficiente de transdutores matriciais foi simulada, fabricada e caracterizada. Os resultados mostram que o transdutor proposto possui capacidade de transmissão melhorada para gerar deslocamento em tecidos profundos. Além disso, simulações numéricas foram realizadas para monitorar a deformação do tecido e reconstruir suas propriedades elásticas.

L'objectif des travaux présentés dans cette thèse est le développement d'un système d'imagerie ultrasonore fonctionnant dans l'air pour la mesure sans contact des mouvements vibratoires en surface du corps humain. L'étude des vibrations en surface de la peau ouvre plusieurs champs d'application. L'observation de la vitesse d'une onde de surface sur la peau à partir du film de propagation permet de caractériser l'élasticité de la couche superficielle ainsi que ses hétérogénéités. A partir de cette analyse, il est possible de détecter des objets cachés sur ou sous la peau, dans un objectif de sécurité. Une seconde application est l'observation des vibrations de surface engendrées par le battement cardiaque, la respiration et l'onde de pouls. La réalisation d'un premier dispositif monovoie a permis la mesure locale de vibrations de l'ordre de la dizaine de microns. A partir de ces premiers travaux, nous avons construit un imageur ultrasonore 2D dans l'air à haute cadence d'imagerie. Il est constitué d'un réseau carré de 256 microphones et de 12 émetteurs. La principale nouveauté de notre approche repose sur l'imagerie d'une surface spéculaire. En effet, la rugosité de la peau est négligeable comparée aux longueurs d'onde de travail, de l'ordre du centimètre pour limiter l'atténuation dans l'air. Pour répondre à cette contrainte, l'imagerie est réalisée à partir de la formation de voies émission/réception par synthèse d'ouverture en utilisant une émission séquentielle d'ondes sphériques. Après caractérisation du système, nous avons imagé la propagation d'une onde de surface sur un fantôme mimant le corps humain et l'interférence de cette onde avec un objet étranger. Une seconde version de l'imageur 2D, constituée de 36 émetteurs, a permis la mesure de la déformation du thorax lors du battement cardiaque ainsi que la propagation de l'onde de pouls au niveau de la carotide. / The aim of the work presented in this dissertation is to develop an airborne ultrasonic system for the contactless measurement of vibrations on the human body surface. The vibration study of the skin surface opens several application fields. The visualization of the surface wave velocity on the skin from the propagation movie allows to characterize the superficial layer elasticity as well as its heterogeneities. From this analysis, objects hidden on or under the skin can be detected for a security purpose. A second application is the observation of the surface vibrations generated by the heartbeat, respiration and pulse wave.The implementation of a first single-channel device allowed the local measurement of vibrations about ten microns order. From this initial work, we developed a 2D airborne ultrasonic imager with high frame rate. It is composed by a 256 microphones square array and by 12 piezoelectric transducers. The main innovation of our approach is the specular surface imaging. Indeed, the skin roughness is negligible compared to the working wavelength, of the centimeter order to limit the air attenuation. To resolve this issue, the imaging process is carried out with an emission/reception beamforming using synthetic aperture and achieved by a sequential emission of spherical waves.After the system characterization, we imaged the surface wave propagation on a phantom mimicking the human body and the interference between this wave and a foreign object. A second version of the 2D imager, composed by 36 emitters, was applied to measure the deformation of the thorax during the heartbeat as well as the pulse wave propagation in the carotid artery.

Dans le but d’améliorer le traitement des éventrations, cette thèse porte sur la biomécanique de la paroi abdominale. Plusieurs aspects de son comportement ont été étudiés: de la paroi globale aux constituants, de la paroi passive ex vivo sous chargement contrôlé à la paroi active in vivo sous chargement physiologique et enfin de la paroi saine des volontaires non-malades à la paroi lésée des patients en pré-opératoire. Un protocole a été développé pour évaluer la contribution des composants de la paroi abdominale humaine ex vivo à sa réponse mécanique globale. Les spécimens sont sollicités par pression après dissection successive des différents composants. L’analyse par stéréo-corrélation des déformations de la surface interne a montré que la gaine des rectus abdominis joue un rôle important dans la réponse de la paroi abdominale antérieure. Les examens in vivo ont permis de considérer la paroi abdominale in situ de 11 volontaires non-malades et pour la première fois de patients souffrant d’éventration (n=4) en pré-opératoire. Géométrie externe et interne, élasticité des muscles et raideurs locales ont été mesurées lors d’activités physiologiques. Les paramètres mécaniques mesurés sur les patients restent soit dans l’étendue de mesure des valeurs des volontaires non malades, soit sont plus faibles. Dans le futur, l’inclusion d’autres patients et des examens post-opératoires seront poursuivis. On disposera alors de données quantitatives de la paroi abdominale couvrant l’état sain, lésé et réparé. Des modèles numériques pourront être développés. Ils permettront d’estimer l’influence de paramètres mécaniques et géométriques sur le comportement de la paroi abdominale / This thesis focuses on the biomechanics of the abdominal wall in order to help improving the treatment of incisional hernias. Several aspects of its response werestudied: from global wall to components, from passive wall ex vivo subjected to controlled loading to active wall in vivo under physiological loading and finally from intact wall of healthy volunteers to incised wall of herniated patients before repair surgery. A protocol was developed to assess the contribution of the components of the human abdominal wall ex vivo to the global mechanical response. The specimens were loaded by air pressure after dissection of different components. The strain analysis of the internal surface by stereo-correlation highlighted the importance of the rectus abdominis sheath in the response of the anterior abdominal wall. The in vivo examinations considered the entire abdominal wall in situ of 11 healthy volunteers and for the first time herniated patients before surgery (n=4). External and internal geometry, muscle elasticity and local stiffness were measured during various physiological activities. Mechanical parameters measured on patients remain either in the range of values obtained with healthy volunteers or lower. In the future, the inclusion of other patients and post-operative examinations will be conducted. This will provide quantitative data for the healthy, incised and repaired abdominal wall and support the development of numerical models to estimate the influence of mechanical and geometrical parameters on the behavior of the abdominal wall

La compression élastique de la jambe est le traitement de référence des pathologies liées à l’insuffisance veineuse. Bien que l’efficacité ne soit plus à prouver, les objectifs thérapeutiques restent non atteints pour certains patients. Un objectif de la compression élastique est la réduction de la pression pariétale des veines afin de rétablir ou d’augmenter le retour du sang vers le cœur par une transmission de pression au travers des tissus mous. Ce mécanisme est complexe et peut être prédit par des modèles éléments finis personnalisés. Pour être personnalisés, ces modèles doivent prendre en compte la géométrie et la carte des propriétés mécaniques du sujet.Dans cette étude, on développe deux méthodologies permettant d’identifier les propriétés mécaniques des tissus mous. Dans un premier temps, on mesure par élastographie ultrasonore par onde de cisaillement la distribution du module élastique au sein des tissus mous superficiels. Dans un deuxième temps, on identifie par une méthode inverse les propriétés mécaniques des tissus mous profonds. Cette méthode associe l’acquisition de données d’un essai expérimental de compression localisée de la jambe à un modèle éléments finis bidimensionnel. Ces deux méthodologies nous permettent d’évaluer l’hétérogénéité des propriétés mécaniques de la peau au fascia cruris et de caractériser le comportement non-linéaire des tissus mous profonds. Enfin, les résultats de ces deux méthodologies sont couplés afin de générer un modèle biomécanique de la jambe sous compression élastique pour prédire la distribution de pression au sein des tissus mous pour quatre sujets sains. / Elastic compression of the leg is a widely used treatment in case of pathologies related to venous insufficiency. Its benefits are not to be proven, but still, for some patients, the therapeutic goal is not reached. One goal of this treatment is to reduce transmural pressure applied to veins in order to restore or increase blood return to the heart by the transmission of the external pressure through soft tissues. This is a complex mechanism that can be predicted by patient-specific finite element models. To be patient-specific, these models must take into account the geometry and the distribution of mechanical properties of each subject.In this study, two methodologies are developed to identify the mechanical properties of soft tissues. First, the elastic modulus distribution inside the superficial soft tissues is measured by shear wave ultrasound elastography. Second, the mechanical properties of deep soft tissues are identified through an inverse method combining the data acquired from an experimental localized compression of the leg to a bi-dimensional finite element model.These two methodologies allow to evaluate the mechanical properties heterogeneity from the skin to the fascia cruris and to characterize the non-linear behaviour of deep soft tissues. Finally, the results from both methodologies are brought together to generate a biomechanical model of the leg under elastic compression to predict pressure distribution inside soft tissues for four healthy subjects.

Actuellement, l’étude du mouvement des tissus biologiques figure parmi les thématiques majeures dans le domaine de l’imagerie médicale, dont le challenge est d’apporter un complément d’information clinique et de permettre une aide au diagnostic. L’application récente de techniques d’élastographie ouvre de nouvelles perspectives de caractérisation biomécanique des tissus, et notamment du cerveau. Dans ce contexte, nous proposons une méthodologie innovante d’élastographie passive des propriétés mécaniques du tissu cérébral dont le but est de permettre à terme le diagnostic des maladies neurodégénératives. / The study of biological tissues movement is currently, one of the major thematics in the medical imaging field. The challenge is to provide additional clinical information and allow for diagnostic assistance. The recently introduced elastographic techniques, provide ample opportunities for biomechanical tissues characterization, particularly of cerebral tissues. An innovative passive-elastographic methodology for assessing mechanical properties of brain tissue is proposed. The eventual aim is to allow for the diagnosis of neurodegenerative diseases.

Résumé : L’imagerie testiculaire développée dans notre unité a deux thématiques principales : l’infertilité et la caractérisation tumorale. Cette imagerie est basée sur l’échographie et l’IRM multiparamétriques. Nous avons défini des critères diagnostiques pour différentes pathologies, ayant un impact sur la prise en charge des patients, et évalué des modalités innovantes.Nous avons caractérisé l’aspect des testicules de patients infertiles porteurs d’un syndrome de Klinefelter. Nous avons déterminé l’aspect en Mode B et en Doppler couleur des tumeurs à cellules de Leydig dont la plupart sont actuellement découvertes de façon fortuite et peuvent bénéficier d’une surveillance ou d’une tumorectomie. Nous avons défini les critères diagnostiques des tumeurs éteintes ou «burned out tumors» découvertes en écho-Doppler chez des patients adressés pour bilan d’infertilité.Nous avons montré la capacité de l’IRM multiparamétrique à améliorer la caractérisation tumorale, par l’analyse qualitative et quantitative du rehaussement et par la valeur du coefficient de diffusion (ADC).L’échographie de contraste a montré des différences significatives entre les tumeurs éteintes et les autres lésions.L’élastographie par onde de cisaillement a montré des différences de dureté entre les testicules des patients infertiles par mécanisme obstructif et non obstructif mais le chevauchement des valeurs minimise l’impact clinique potentiel. Les tumeurs bénignes à cellules de Leydig étaient plus molles que les tumeurs malignes et les tumeurs éteintes. Le couplage des informations données par le mode B, le Doppler couleur, et l’élastographie ont permis une caractérisation optimale.Le Doppler ultrasensible a permis une analyse qualitative de l’architecture vasculaire des tumeurs, de la vascularisation testiculaire dans les urgences scrotales et une quantification de la vascularisation testiculaire. Nous avons objectivé une diminution de la vascularisation testiculaire pendant la manœuvre de Valsalva chez les patients avec varicocèle, ce qui représente une explication physiopathologique à l’infertilité par mécanisme hypoxique. / The testicular imaging we developped in our department focused on two main subjects: infertility and tumoral characterization. It is based on multiparametric ultrasound and MRI. We defined diagnostic criteria of several pathologies, which may change the patient’s management, and we evaluated new modalities.We characterized Klinefelter patient’s testis.We determined the Color-Doppler features of Leydig cell tumors which are currently incidentally discovered and can benefit from monitoring or tumorectomy.We defined multiparametric US and MRI diagnostic’s criteria of burned out tumors in patients referred for US infertility screening.We demonstrated the ability of multiparametric MRI to improve the tumoral characterization using qualitative and quantitative enhancement parameters and apparent diffusion coefficient values.CEUS showed significant differences between the burned out tumors and other lesions.. Shear Wave Elastography (SWE) showed significant differences in testicular stiffness between normal, obstructive azoospermia on one side and non-obstructive azoospermic patients, but overlapped values seemed to minimize the potential clinical impact. Benign Leydig cell were softer compared to malignant tumors and burned out tumors. Association of B mode, color Doppler, and elastography allowed an optimal characterization.Ultrasensitive Doppler allowed a qualitative evaluation of the tumoral vascular architecture, a testicular vascularization assessment in case of acute scrotum, and a testicular perfusion quantification. We demonstrated a decreased testicular vascularization during the Valsalva maneuver confirming the hypoxic physiopathological explanation of the infertility process.