Among the obstacles for the commercialization of the MoltenCarbonate Fuel Cell (MCFC), the dissolution of thestate-of-the-art lithiated NiO cathode is considered as aprimary lifetime limiting constraint. Development ofalternative cathode materials is considered as a main strategyfor solving the cathode dissolution problem. LiFeO2and LiCoO2had earlier been reported as the most promisingalternative materials; however, they could not satisfactorilysubstitute the lithiated NiO. On the other hand, ternarycompositions of LiFeO2, LiCoO2and NiO are expected to combine some desirableproperties of each component. The aim of this work was todevelop alternative cathode materials for MCFC in the LiFeO2-LiCoO2-NiO ternary system. It was carried out byinvestigating electronic conductivity of the materials, firstin the form of bulk pellets and then in ex-situ sinteredporous-gas-diffusion cathodes, and evaluating theirelectrochemical performance by short-time laboratory-scale celloperations. Materials in the LiFeO2-NiO binary system and five ternary sub-systems,each with a constant molar ratio of LiFeO2:NiO while varying LiCoO2content, were studied. Powders withcharacteristics appropriate for MCFC cathode fabrication couldbe obtained by the Pechini method. The particle size of LiFeO2-LiCoO2-NiO powders considerably depends on thecalcination temperature and the material composition. Theelectrical conductivity study reveals the ability of preparingLiFeO2-LiCoO2-NiO materials with adequate electricalconductivity for MCFC cathode application. A bimodal pore structure, appropriate for the MCFC cathode,could be achieved in sintered cathodes prepared usingporeformers and sub-micron size powder. Further, this studyindicates the nature of the compromise to be made between theelectrical conductivity, phase purity, pore structure andporosity in optimization of cathodes for MCFC application. Cellperformance comparable to that expected for the cathode in acommercial MCFC could be achieved with cathodes prepared from20 mole% LiFeO2- 20 mole% LiCoO2- 60 mole% NiO ternary composition. It shows aniR-corrected polarization of 62 mV and a iR-drop of 46 mV at acurrent density of 160 mAcm-2at 650 °C. Altogether, this study revealsthe possibility of preparing LiFeO2-LiCoO2-NiO cathode materials suitable for MCFCapplication. Keywords: molten carbonate fuel cell (MCFC), MCFC cathode,LiFeO2-LiCoO2-NiO ternary compositions, electrical conductivity,porous gas diffusion electrodes, polarization, electrochemicalperformance, post-cell characterization.

<p>One of the most powerful aspects of conducting polymers is their ability to be nanostructured through innovative, synthetically manipulated, transformations, such as to tailor-make the polymers for specialized applications. In the exponentially increasing wide field of nanotechnology, some special attention is being paid to innovative hybrid dendrimer-core based polymeric smart materials. Star copolymers are a class of branched macromolecules having a central core with multiple linear polymer chains extending from the core. This intrinsic structural feature yields a unique 3D structure with extended conjugated linear polymer chains, resulting in star copolymers, which have higher ionic conductivities than their corresponding non-star conducting polymer counterparts. In this study an in-depth investigation was carried out into the preparation and characterization of specialized electronic &lsquo / smart materials&rsquo / . In particular, the preparation and characterization of novel conducting dendrimeric star copolymers which have a central poly(propylene imine) (PPI) dendrimer core with conducting polypyrrole (PPy) chains extending from the core was carried out. This involved, first, the preparation of a series of dendrimeric polypyrrole poly(propylene imine) star copolymers (PPI-co-PPy), using generations 1 to 4 (G1 to G4) PPI dendrimer precursors. The experimental approach involved the use of both chemical and electrochemical synthesis methods. The basic procedure involved a condensation reaction between the primary amine of a diamino functional PPI dendrimer surface and 2-pyrrole aldehyde, to afford the pyrrole functionalized PPI dendrimer (PPI-2Py). Polymerization of the intrinsically contained monomeric Py units situated within the dendrimer backbone was achieved via two distinctly different routes: the first involved chemical polymerization and the second was based on potentiodynamic oxidative electrochemical polymerization. The star copolymers were then characterized using various sophisticated analytical techniques, in-situ and ex-situ. Proton nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (1HNMR) and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) were used to determine the structures. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) was used to determine the morphology. Themogravimetric analysis (TGA) was used to study the thermal stability of the prepared materials. X-ray diffraction analysis (XRD) was used to study the structural make-up of phases, crystallinity and amorphous content. Hall effect measurements were carried out to determine the electrical conductivity of the chemically prepared star copolymers. The PPI-co-PPy exhibited improved thermal stability compared to PPI-2Py, as confirmed by TGA. SEM results showed that the surface morphology of the functionalized dendrimer and star copolymer differed. The surface morphology of the chemically prepared star copolymers resembled that of a flaky, waxy material, compared to the ordered morphology of the electrochemically grown star copolymers, which resembled that of whelk-like helixes. In the case the electrochemically grown star copolymers, SEM images recorded at higher magnifications showed that the whelk-like helixes of the star copolymers were hollow tubes with openings at their tapered ends, and had an average base diameter of 2.0 &mu / m. X-ray diffraction analysis of the first generation star copolymer G1PPI-co-PPy revealed a broadly amorphous structure associated with PPy, and crystalline peaks for PPI. Cyclic voltammetry (CV), square wave voltammetry (SWV) and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) techniques were used to study and model the electrochemical reactivity of the star copolymer materials. Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy data showed that the G1PPI-co-PPy exhibited slightly higher ionic conductivity than pristine PPy in lithium perchlorate. The second generation star copolymer G2PPI-co-PPy electrochemically deposited on a platinum (Pt) electrode had a lower electrochemical charge transfer resistance compared to electrodeposited polypyrrole (PPy) on a Pt electrode, and bare Pt. The decrease in charge transfer resistance was attributed to an increase in the conjugation length of the polymer as a result of the linking of the highly conjugated PPy to the PPI dendrimer. Bode impedimetric analysis indicated that G2PPI-co-PPI was a semiconductor, with a maximum phase angle shift of 45.3&deg / at 100 MHz. The star copolymer exhibited a 2- electron electrochemistry and a surface coverage of 99%. Results of Hall effect measurements showed that the star copolymer is a semiconducting material, having a conductivity of 0.7 S cm-1, in comparison to the 1.5 S cm-1 of PPy. To the best of my knowledge, these new star copolymers have not been reported in the open literature. Their properties make them potentially applicable for use in biosensors.</p>

The aim of this study was to improve the mechanical and electrical properties of conductive polymer composites. For this purpose, different studies were performed in this dissertation. In order to investigate the effects of the carbon nanotube (CNT) surface treatment on the morphology, electrical and mechanical properties of the composites, poly(ethylene terephthalate) (PET) based conductive polymer composites were prepared by using as-received, purified and modified carbon nanotubes in a twin screw extruder. During the purification of carbon nanotubes, surface properties of carbon nanotubes were altered by purifying them with nitric acid (HNO3), sulfuric acid (H2SO4), ammonium hydroxide (NH4OH) and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) mixtures. Electron Spectroscopy for Chemical Analysis (ESCA) results indicated the removal of metallic catalyst residues from the structure of carbon nanotubes and increase in the oxygen content of carbon nanotube surface as a result of purification procedure. Surface structure of the purified carbon nanotubes was also modified by treatment with sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS), poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) and diglycidyl ether of Bisphenol A (DGEBA). Fourier Transformed Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) spectra of the carbon nanotube samples indicated the existence of functional groups on the surfaces of carbon nanotubes after modification. All composites prepared with purified and modified carbon nanotubes had higher electrical resistivities, tensile and impact strength values than those of the composite based on as-received carbon nanotubes, due to the functional groups formed on the surfaces of carbon nanotubes during surface treatment. In order to investigate the effects of alternative composite preparation methods on the electrical and mechanical properties of the composites, in-situ microfiber reinforced conductive polymer composites consisting of high density polyethylene (HDPE), poly(ethylene terephthalate) and carbon nanotubes were prepared in a twin screw extruder followed by hot stretching of PET/CNT phase in HDPE matrix. Composites were produced by using as-received, purified and PEG treated carbon nanotubes. SEM micrographs of the hot stretched composites pointed out the existence of in-situ PET/CNT microfibers dispersed in HDPE matrix up to 1 wt. % carbon nanotube loadings. Electrical conductivity values of the microfibrillar composites were higher than that of the composites prepared without microfiber reinforcement due to the presence of continuous PET/CNT microfibers with high electrical conductivity in the structure. To investigate the potential application of conductive polymer composites, the effects of surfactant usage and carbon nanotube surface modification / on the damage sensing capability of the epoxy/carbon nanotube/glass fiber composite panels during mechanical loadings were studied. Surface modification of the carbon nanotubes was performed by using hexamethylene diamine (HMDA). 4-octylphenol polyethoxylate (nonionic) (Triton X-100) and cetyl pyridinium chloride (cationic) (CPC) were used as surfactants during composite preparation. Electrical resistivity measurements which were performed during the impact, tensile and fatigue tests of the composite panels showed the changes in damage sensing capabilities of the composites. Surface treatment of carbon nanotubes and the use of surfactants decreased the carbon nanotube particle size and improved the dispersion in the composites which increased the damage sensitivity of the panels.

Materials for extreme electrical contacts need to have high electrical conductivity coupled with good structural properties. Potential applications include motor contacts, high power switches, and the components of electromagnetic launch (EML) systems. In particular, the lack of durability of these materials in rail components limits practical EML implementation. These rails experience significant amounts of Joule heating, due to extreme current densities, and subsequent thermally-assisted wear. New more durable materials solutions are needed for these components. A systematic materials selection study was executed to identify and compare candidate materials solutions. Several possible candidate non-dominated materials as well as hybrid materials that could potential fill the "white spaces" on the Ashby charts were identified. A couple potential candidate materials were obtained and evaluated. These included copper-tungsten W-Cu, "self-lubricating" graphite-impregnated Cu, and Gr-W-Cu composites with different volume fractions of the constituents. The structure-property relations were determined through mechanical and electrical resistivity testing. A unique test protocol for exposing mechanical test specimens to extreme current densities up to 1.2 GA/m2 was developed and used to evaluate these candidate materials. The systematic design of multi-functional materials for these extreme electrical contacts requires more than an empirical approach. Without a good understanding of both the tribological and structural performance, the optimization of the microstructure will not be quickly realized. By using micromechanics modeling and other materials design modeling tools coupled with systematic mechanical and tribological experiments, the design of materials for these applications can potentially be accelerated. In addition, using these tools, more complex functionally-graded materials tailored to the application can be systematically designed. In this study, physics- and micromechanics-based models were used to correlate properties to the volume fraction of the constituents of the evaluated candidate materials. Properties correlated included density, elastic modulus, hardness, strength, and electrical resistivity of the W-Cu materials.

Electrically conductive polymer composites are suitable for use in the manufacture of antistatic products and components for electronic interconnects, fuel cells and electromagnetic shielding. The most widely used processing techniques for producing electrically conductive polymer composites place an inherent constraint on the geometry and architecture of the part that can be fabricated. Hence, this thesis investigates selective laser sintering (SLS), a rapid prototyping technique, to fabricate and characterize electrically conductive nanocomposites of Nylon-12 filled with 4% by weight of carbon black. The objective of the dissertation was to study the effects of the SLS process on the microstructure and properties of the nanocomposite. The effect of laser power and the scan speed on the flexural modulus and part density of the nanocomposite was studied. The set of parameters that yielded the maximum flexural modulus and part density were used to fabricate specimens to study the tensile, impact, rheological and viscoelastic properties. The electrical conductivity of the nanocomposite was also investigated. The thermo-mechanical properties and electrical conductivity of the nanocomposites produced by SLS were compared with those produced by extrusion-injection molding. The structure and morphology of the SLS-processed and extrusion-injection molded nanocomposites were characterized using gas pycnometry, gel permeation chromatography, differential scanning calorimetry, electron microscopy, polarized light microscopy and x-ray diffraction. Physical models were developed to explain the effects of the processing technique on the structure and properties of the nanocomposites. Finally, a one-dimensional heat transfer model of the SLS process that accounted for sintering-induced densification and thermal degradation of the polymer was implemented in order to study the variation in part density with respect to the energy density of the laser beam. This dissertation demonstrated that SLS can be successfully used to fabricate electrically conductive polymer nanocomposites with a relatively low percolation threshold. This capability combined with the ability of SLS to fabricate complicated three-dimensional objects without part-specific tooling could open up several new opportunities.

Organic materials are ubiquitous in the geologic environment, and can exert significant influence over the interfacial properties of minerals. However, due to the complexity in their structure and interaction with soil solids, their impact has remained relatively unquantified. This study investigated the engineering behaviors of organoclays, which were synthesized in the laboratory using naturally occurring clay minerals and quaternary ammonium compounds of controlled structure and density of loading. Organic cations were chosen to study the effects of functional group structure and size. The laboratory investigation showed that the presence of the organic cations on the mineral surfaces led to increased hydrophobicity of all clays tested. Conduction studies on the electrical, hydraulic, and thermal properties of the organoclay composites suggested that increasing the total organic carbon content resulted in decreased electrical and thermal conductivity, but increased hydraulic conductivity, due to the reduced swelling of the base clay mineral phase. Electrokinetic properties of the organoclays illustrated that compared with the clay's naturally occurring inorganic cations, exchanged quaternary ammonium cations were more likely bound within a particle's shear plane. Consequently, organoclays had less negative zeta potential than that of unmodified bentonite. Increasing the length of one carbon tail was more effective at binding organic cations within the shear plane than increasing the size of the cation, when compared on the basis of total organic carbon content. In terms of large strain strength, the modified organic clays exhibited increased shear strength, in part owing to the reduction in water content caused by the presence of the hydrophobic organic layering. Shear strength increased with single carbon tail length or with cation size, although the latter effect tended to reach a plateau as the length of the four short cation tails increased from 2 to 4. In terms of small strain behavior, the shear modulus was shown to be a function of the total organic carbon content. It is believed that number of particle contacts increased as the organic carbon content increased. Stiffness increased as either the size of the cation or the total organic carbon content was increased. Damping also increased as the organic loading was increased, with the organic phase acting as an energy dissipation mechanism.

<p>Among the obstacles for the commercialization of the MoltenCarbonate Fuel Cell (MCFC), the dissolution of thestate-of-the-art lithiated NiO cathode is considered as aprimary lifetime limiting constraint. Development ofalternative cathode materials is considered as a main strategyfor solving the cathode dissolution problem. LiFeO₂and LiCoO₂had earlier been reported as the most promisingalternative materials; however, they could not satisfactorilysubstitute the lithiated NiO. On the other hand, ternarycompositions of LiFeO₂, LiCoO₂and NiO are expected to combine some desirableproperties of each component. The aim of this work was todevelop alternative cathode materials for MCFC in the LiFeO₂-LiCoO₂-NiO ternary system. It was carried out byinvestigating electronic conductivity of the materials, firstin the form of bulk pellets and then in ex-situ sinteredporous-gas-diffusion cathodes, and evaluating theirelectrochemical performance by short-time laboratory-scale celloperations.</p><p>Materials in the LiFeO₂-NiO binary system and five ternary sub-systems,each with a constant molar ratio of LiFeO₂:NiO while varying LiCoO₂content, were studied. Powders withcharacteristics appropriate for MCFC cathode fabrication couldbe obtained by the Pechini method. The particle size of LiFeO₂-LiCoO₂-NiO powders considerably depends on thecalcination temperature and the material composition. Theelectrical conductivity study reveals the ability of preparingLiFeO₂-LiCoO₂-NiO materials with adequate electricalconductivity for MCFC cathode application.</p><p>A bimodal pore structure, appropriate for the MCFC cathode,could be achieved in sintered cathodes prepared usingporeformers and sub-micron size powder. Further, this studyindicates the nature of the compromise to be made between theelectrical conductivity, phase purity, pore structure andporosity in optimization of cathodes for MCFC application. Cellperformance comparable to that expected for the cathode in acommercial MCFC could be achieved with cathodes prepared from20 mole% LiFeO₂- 20 mole% LiCoO₂- 60 mole% NiO ternary composition. It shows aniR-corrected polarization of 62 mV and a iR-drop of 46 mV at acurrent density of 160 mAcm^-2at 650 °C. Altogether, this study revealsthe possibility of preparing LiFeO₂-LiCoO₂-NiO cathode materials suitable for MCFCapplication.</p><p>Keywords: molten carbonate fuel cell (MCFC), MCFC cathode,LiFeO₂-LiCoO₂-NiO ternary compositions, electrical conductivity,porous gas diffusion electrodes, polarization, electrochemicalperformance, post-cell characterization.</p>

Στα πλαίσια της αναζήτησης νέων μεθόδων παραγωγής ενέργειας υψηλής απόδοσης και φιλικής προς το περιβάλλον, ένα μεγάλο μέρος των ερευνητικών δραστηριοτήτων σε διεθνή κλίμακα έχει στραφεί στην ανάπτυξη της τεχνολογίας των κελιών καυσίμου στερεού ηλεκτρολύτη, SOFCs (Solid Oxide Fuel Cells). Ένα από τα μειονεκτήματα που εμφανίζονται κατά την μακρόχρονη λειτουργία ενός ‘state of the art’ κελιού καυσίμου αποτελούμενο από Ni/8YSZ (8 mol% Y2O3 stabilized ZrO2) κεραμομεταλλικό (άνοδος) - 8YSZ (ηλεκτρολύτης) - (La,Sr)MnO3 περοβσκίτη (κάθοδος) - LaCrO3 περοβσκίτη (συνδέτης) είναι η υποβάθμιση της απόδοσής του, η οποία μεταξύ άλλων οφείλεται στην αστάθεια της μικροδομής του κεραμομεταλλικού ηλεκτροδίου της ανόδου στις υψηλές θερμοκρασίες λειτουργίας του, λόγω συσσωμάτωσης της μεταλλικής φάσης. Στόχος της παρούσας εργασίας είναι η ανάπτυξη νέων υλικών με σκοπό την εφαρμογή τους ως ανοδικά ηλεκτρόδια σε κελιά καυσίμου στερεού ηλεκτρολύτη τόσο υψηλών (High Temperature SOFCs, 800-1000oC) όσο και μέσων θερμοκρασιών (Intermediate Temperature SOFCs, 650-800oC). Για το σκοπό αυτό και όσον αφορά τα HT-SOFCs παρασκευάσθηκαν, χαρακτηρίσθηκαν και ελέγχθηκαν οι ιδιότητες μικτών κεραμικών οξειδίων επιλεγμένων συνθέσεων των τριμερών συστημάτων Y2O3-ZrO2-TiO2 (YZT), Y2O3-ZrO2-Nb2O5 (YZN) και Y2O3-ZrO2-CeO2 (YZC) σε σύγκριση με το κεραμικό 8YSZ, ενώ έπειτα από την εξαγωγή των αποτελεσμάτων η έρευνα εστιάσθηκε στα κεραμομεταλλικά υλικά του συστήματος Ni/YZT με προσθήκη 30, 40 και 45 vol% Ni. Tα αποτελέσματα έδειξαν ότι τα Ni/YZT κεραμομεταλλικά συστήματα παρουσιάζουν βελτιωμένη μηχανική συμβατότητα με το στερεό ηλεκτρολύτη. Ο μεταλλογραφικός έλεγχος σε συνδυασμό με ανάλυση εικόνας έδειξε ότι η μικροδομή τους παραμένει σταθερή διατηρώντας τις τιμές της ηλεκτρικής αγωγιμότητας πρακτικά αμετάβλητες μετά από μακροχρόνια έκθεση (1000 h) σε αναγωγική ατμόσφαιρα (Ar/4%H2). Η εν λόγω συμπεριφορά παρουσιάσθηκε πιο ενισχυμένη ιδιαίτερα για τα κεραμομεταλλικά με αυξημένα ποσοστά TiO2 στην κεραμική φάση. Πειράματα διαβροχής σε συστήματα κεραμικών (YZT) σε επαφή με ρευστό Ni έδειξαν ότι η προσθήκη TiO2 βελτιώνει την ισχύ του δεσμού στη διεπιφάνεια μετάλλου/κεραμικού. Ηλεκτροχημικές μετρήσεις σε κελιά καυσίμου με Ni/YZT κεραμομεταλλικές ανόδους έδωσαν ενθαρρυντικά αποτελέσματα, επιτυγχάνοντας για ένα από τα υπό μελέτη συστήματα βελτιωμένη απόδοση σε σύγκριση με τη συμβατική άνοδο, Ni/8YSZ. Όσον αφορά τη δυνατότητα μείωσης της θερμοκρασίας λειτουργίας ενός SOFC από τους 900-1000οC στους 650-800οC και την ανάπτυξη των IT-SOFCs, η έρευνα στράφηκε προς κεραμικές συνθέσεις βασισμένες στο CeO2 και πιο συγκεκριμένα προς τα συστήματα Y2O3-CeO2 (YC) και Y2O3-CeO2-TiO2 (YCT). Ο κρυσταλλογραφικός έλεγχος των κεραμικών κόνεων, μετά από θερμική ανόπτηση μέχρι τους 1400οC στον αέρα, έδειξε ότι η βασική κρυσταλλική τους δομή αντιστοιχεί στο κυβικό πλέγμα του φθορίτη. Στα συστήματα που περιέχουν TiO2 εμφανίζεται ο σχηματισμός μιας επιπλέον φάσης με πυροχλωριτική δομή (Y2Ti2O7). Οι μετρήσεις του συντελεστή θερμικής διαστολής (TEC) στον αέρα στη θερμοκρασιακή περιοχή 25-1000°C έδωσε παρεμφερείς τιμές μειούμενες με αυξανόμενο το ποσοστό σε Ti. Σε ατμόσφαιρα Ar/4%H2 οι τιμές του TEC αυξάνονται σημαντικά για θερμοκρασίες T ≥ 800°C. Οι απόλυτες τιμές της συνολικής ηλεκτρικής αγωγιμότητας των κεραμικών σε αναγωγικές συνθήκες (Ar/4%H2) στη θερμοκρασιακή περιοχή 450-900°C εμφανίζονται σημαντικά υψηλότερες συγκριτικά με τις αντίστοιχες τιμές στον αέρα λόγω του μικτού ιοντικού-ηλεκτρονικού της χαρακτήρα. Οι απόλυτες τιμές της ιοντικής αγωγιμότητας παρουσιάζονται σημαντικά ενισχυμένες, περίπου μισή τάξη μεγέθους σε σχέση με τις αντίστοιχες του 8YSZ, για τις κεραμικές συνθέσεις του συστήματος Y0.20Ce0.80-xTixO1.9 με τις χαμηλότερες περιεκτικότητες σε Ti. Τα αντίστοιχα Ni-cermets με υψηλά ποσοστά σε ύττρια και χαμηλά ποσοστά σε τιτάνια στην κεραμική φάση επέδειξαν εξαιρετική μακροχρόνια σταθερότητα της ηλεκτρικής αγωγιμότητας, ενώ υπό τις συνθήκες λειτουργίας ενός SOFC (~900οC) η διάχυση του Ce προς το στερεό ηλεκτρολύτη 8YSZ είναι αμελητέα. / In the frame of research for the development of alternative, friendly to the environment methods for the production of energy, significant effort is focusing on SOFC (Solid Oxide Fuel Cell) technology. This work aims to the development of new promising materials for their application as anode electrodes in solid oxide fuel cells operating at high temperatures (HT-SOFCs), as well as at the intermediate temperature range (IT-SOFCs). Concerning the HT-SOFCs, mixed ZrO2-based ceramic oxides of the ternary systems Y2O3-ZrO2-TiO2 (YZT), Y2O3-ZrO2-Nb2O5 (YZN) and Y2O3-ZrO2-CeO2 (YZC) were prepared, characterized and studied in terms of thermal expansion and electrical properties, as well as their potential application as the ceramic components in the anode cermet material of a SOFC, focusing on the Ni/YZT system containing 30, 40 and 45 vol% Ni. The results showed that Ni/YZT cermets exhibit improved mechanical adjustment with the solid electrolyte and enhanced structural stability compared to Ni/8YSZ while the values of the electrical conductivity remain practical constant after long-term annealing at 1000oC for up to 1000 h in reducing atmosphere (Ar/4%H2), especially for the cermets with high TiO2-content in the ceramic phase. Wetting experiments in the system of YZT ceramics in contact with Ni showed that TiO2 presence enhances the bond strength at the metal/ceramic interface, which results in the decrease of the agglomeration tendency of the metallic particles. Electrochemical tests performed on fuel cells with Ni/YZT anode cermets showed encouraging results, whereas it is remarkable that for a specific composition was achieved improved performance compared to Ni/8YSZ anode. With regard to the possible reduction of the operating temperature from 900-1000oC to 650-800°C and the development of IT-SOFCs, the study was focused on CeO2-based oxides and more specifically on the binary Y2O3-CeO2 (YC) and ternary Y2O3-CeO2-TiO2 (YCT) systems. The XRD analysis of the ceramic powders after heating at temperatures up to 1400°C in air showed the formation of the cubic fluorite structure for the YC ceramic, whereas for the YCT ceramics an additional phase (Y2Ti2O7) with pyrochlore structure was formed. The thermal expansion coefficient (TEC) of the ceramics measured in air between 25 and 1000°C gave comparable values, decreasing with increasing Ti content, while in Ar/4%H2 atmosphere the TEC values of the ceramics increase dramatically at T ≥ 800 °C. The absolute values of the total electrical conductivity of the ceramics measured between 450-900°C in Ar/4%H2 increase significantly compared to those measured in air, due to their mixed conducting ionic-electronic character. The ionic conductivity of the Y0.20Ce0.80-xTixO1.9 ceramics with low amounts of Ti, measured in air, is appeared strongly increased, by about half order of magnitude, compared to 8YSZ. The corresponding Ni-cermets with high amounts of yttria and low amounts of titania in the ceramic phase exhibit improved long-term stability of the electrical conductivity, while under the operating conditions of a SOFC (~ 900oC) no detectable diffusion of Ce4+ in the 8YSZ electrolyte was observed.

The assembly of nanostructures into “multi”-dimensional materials is one of the main topics occurring in nanoscience today. It is now possible to produce high quality nanostructures reproducibly but for their further application larger structures that are easier to handle are required. Nevertheless during their assembly their nanometer size and accompanying properties must be maintained. This challenge was addressed in this work. Lead chalcogenides have been chosen as an example system because they are expected to offer great opportunities as thermoelectric materials. Three different ways to achieve assemblies of lead chalcogenide nanostructures were used and the resulting structures characterized with respect to their potential application as thermoelectric material. The first means by which a “multi”-dimensional assembly of lead chalcogenide quantum dots can be produced is the formation of porous structures such as aerogels and xerogels. A procedure, where the addition of an initiator such as oxidizers or incident radiation is unnecessary, is introduced and the formation process studied by absorption spectroscopy. The time-consuming aggregation step could be significantly reduced by employing a slightly elevated temperature during gelation that does not lead to any observable differences within the resulting gel structures. After either supercritical or subcritical drying, highly porous monolithic gel structures can be achieved. During the gel formation the size and the shape of the particles changed and they were directly linked together. Nevertheless the resulting porous structures remain crystalline and size dependent effects of the optical properties could be shown. Gels produced from a mixture of PbS and PbSe QDs show a homogenous distribution of both materials but it is not clear to what extent they form an alloy. Although the particles are directly linked together the resulting porous structures possess a very high resistivity and so it was not possible to characterize the semiconductor aerogels with regard to their thermoelectric properties. To achieve an enhanced conductivity porous structures containing PbS and Au nanoparticles have been produced. As has been seen for the pure semiconductor gels the size of the PbS quantum dots has increased and elongated particles were formed. In contrast to the PbS QDs the Au nanoparticles did not change their size and shape and are unevenly distributed within the PbS network. Through the use of the gold nanoparticles the conductivity could be increased and although the conductivity is still quite small, it was possible to determine Seebeck coefficients near room temperature for a mixed semiconductor-metal gel. The second means by which QD solids could be formed was by the compaction of the QD building blocks into a material that is still nanostructured. Therefore the synthesis of PbS was optimized to achieve sufficient amounts of PbS quantum dots. The ligands used in the synthesis of the QDs unfortunately act as an insulating layer resulting in QD solids with resistivities as high as 2 Gigaohm. For this reason different surface modification strategies were introduced to minimize the interparticle distance and to increase the coupling between the QDs so as to increase the conductivity of the resulting quantum dot solids. One very promising method was the exchange of the initial ligands by shorter ones that can be destroyed at lower temperatures. By such heat treatments the resistivity could be decreased by up to six orders of magnitude. For the pressing of the quantum dots two different compaction methods (SPS and hydraulic pressing) were compared. While the grain growth within the SPS pressed samples is significantly higher the same densification can be achieved by a cold hydraulic pressing as well as by SPS. The densification could be further increased through the use of preheated PbS QDs due to the destruction of the ligands. Samples which had been surface modified with MPA and subsequently thermally treated show the best results with respect to their thermopower and resistivities. Nevertheless the conductivity of the QD solids is still too high for them to be used as efficient thermoelectric materials. The final assembly method does not involve QDs but instead with one dimensional nanowires. Therefore a synthesis was developed that enables the formation of PbS nanowires of different diameters and one that is easy up-scalable. By the use of a less reactive sulfur precursor and an additional surfactant the formation of nuclei is significantly retarded and within an annealing time of two hours nanowires can be formed presumably by an oriented attachment mechanism. Single crystalline nanowires with a diameter of 65-105 nm could be achieved with the longest axes of the nanowires being parallel to [100]. The resulting nanowires were used as building blocks for film formation on glass substrates by an easily implemented method that requires no special equipment. To characterize the films with a view to their possible application as a thermoelectric material, surface modifications of the films were performed to improve the charge transfer in the films and the Seebeck coefficients of the resulting films measured. Therefore the previous approach of using MPA was applied and a subsequent thermal treatment demonstrated very promising results. In addition an crosslinking ligand was used for surface treatment that leads to similar results as was observed for the thermally treated MPA approach. Both approaches lead to an order of magnitude decrease in the resistivity and due to the fewer grain boundaries present in the films composed of nanowires as compared to the QD assemblies the conductivity is significantly higher. The Seebeck coefficient measurements show that the thermal treatment only slightly affects the Seebeck coefficients. Therefore a significantly higher power factor could be achieved for the nanowire films than for the QD solids.

<p>One of the most powerful aspects of conducting polymers is their ability to be nanostructured through innovative, synthetically manipulated, transformations, such as to tailor-make the polymers for specialized applications. In the exponentially increasing wide field of nanotechnology, some special attention is being paid to innovative hybrid dendrimer-core based polymeric smart materials. Star copolymers are a class of branched macromolecules having a central core with multiple linear polymer chains extending from the core. This intrinsic structural feature yields a unique 3D structure with extended conjugated linear polymer chains, resulting in star copolymers, which have higher ionic conductivities than their corresponding non-star conducting polymer counterparts. In this study an in-depth investigation was carried out into the preparation and characterization of specialized electronic &lsquo / smart materials&rsquo / . In particular, the preparation and characterization of novel conducting dendrimeric star copolymers which have a central poly(propylene imine) (PPI) dendrimer core with conducting polypyrrole (PPy) chains extending from the core was carried out. This involved, first, the preparation of a series of dendrimeric polypyrrole poly(propylene imine) star copolymers (PPI-co-PPy), using generations 1 to 4 (G1 to G4) PPI dendrimer precursors. The experimental approach involved the use of both chemical and electrochemical synthesis methods. The basic procedure involved a condensation reaction between the primary amine of a diamino functional PPI dendrimer surface and 2-pyrrole aldehyde, to afford the pyrrole functionalized PPI dendrimer (PPI-2Py). Polymerization of the intrinsically contained monomeric Py units situated within the dendrimer backbone was achieved via two distinctly different routes: the first involved chemical polymerization and the second was based on potentiodynamic oxidative electrochemical polymerization. The star copolymers were then characterized using various sophisticated analytical techniques, in-situ and ex-situ. Proton nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (1HNMR) and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) were used to determine the structures. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) was used to determine the morphology. Themogravimetric analysis (TGA) was used to study the thermal stability of the prepared materials. X-ray diffraction analysis (XRD) was used to study the structural make-up of phases, crystallinity and amorphous content. Hall effect measurements were carried out to determine the electrical conductivity of the chemically prepared star copolymers. The PPI-co-PPy exhibited improved thermal stability compared to PPI-2Py, as confirmed by TGA. SEM results showed that the surface morphology of the functionalized dendrimer and star copolymer differed. The surface morphology of the chemically prepared star copolymers resembled that of a flaky, waxy material, compared to the ordered morphology of the electrochemically grown star copolymers, which resembled that of whelk-like helixes. In the case the electrochemically grown star copolymers, SEM images recorded at higher magnifications showed that the whelk-like helixes of the star copolymers were hollow tubes with openings at their tapered ends, and had an average base diameter of 2.0 &mu / m. X-ray diffraction analysis of the first generation star copolymer G1PPI-co-PPy revealed a broadly amorphous structure associated with PPy, and crystalline peaks for PPI. Cyclic voltammetry (CV), square wave voltammetry (SWV) and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) techniques were used to study and model the electrochemical reactivity of the star copolymer materials. Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy data showed that the G1PPI-co-PPy exhibited slightly higher ionic conductivity than pristine PPy in lithium perchlorate. The second generation star copolymer G2PPI-co-PPy electrochemically deposited on a platinum (Pt) electrode had a lower electrochemical charge transfer resistance compared to electrodeposited polypyrrole (PPy) on a Pt electrode, and bare Pt. The decrease in charge transfer resistance was attributed to an increase in the conjugation length of the polymer as a result of the linking of the highly conjugated PPy to the PPI dendrimer. Bode impedimetric analysis indicated that G2PPI-co-PPI was a semiconductor, with a maximum phase angle shift of 45.3&deg / at 100 MHz. The star copolymer exhibited a 2- electron electrochemistry and a surface coverage of 99%. Results of Hall effect measurements showed that the star copolymer is a semiconducting material, having a conductivity of 0.7 S cm-1, in comparison to the 1.5 S cm-1 of PPy. To the best of my knowledge, these new star copolymers have not been reported in the open literature. Their properties make them potentially applicable for use in biosensors.</p>