O procedimento de dimensionamento de uma linha lateral de irrigação localizada necessita ser avaliado com precisão, devido às perdas de carga tanto distribuídas na tubulação como nas inserções dos emissores com os tubos. Devido a isso, desenvolveu-se uma metodologia para a determinação da perda de carga localizada mediante a formulação de um modelo matemático a partir do índice de obstrução. Estas perdas localizadas podem ser significativas quando comparadas com as perdas de carga totais, devido ao grande número de emissores instalados ao longo da linha lateral. O experimento foi junto ao Departamento de Engenharia Rural (ESALQ-USP) e ajustado para valores número de Reynolds (R), no intervalo de 7.480 a 32.597 para proporcionar fluxo turbulento e velocidade máxima de 2,0 m s-1. A pesquisa foi conduzida em duas etapas: 1) ajuste do fator f para um seguimento de 0,5 m de tubo,sendo realizada 10 repetições, com o intuito de validação da metodologia empregada comparando-se o ajuste dos dados encontrados com os trabalhos existentes na literatura, 2) determinação da perda de carga (hf) em um seguimento de tubo de 1 m de comprimento com emissor devidamente vedado, portanto, pela diferença entre a hf do tubo mais o emissor e a hf do tubo obtido na primeira etapa, obteve-se a perda de carga localizada do emissor (hfe). Além disso, com a determinação da geometria do emissor, pelo projetor ótico HB 400, formulou-se uma equação que permitiu o cálculo da perda de carga localizada utilizando-se as características geométricas do emissor (comprimento do emissor, índice de obstrução e coeficiente de contração). Pelos resultados obtidos para 4 modelos utilizados, o modelo estimou satisfatoriamente para 2 modelos, e também verificou-se que o modelo apresentou um desempenho classificado como \'ótimo\', portanto, podendo ser empregado para estimativa de perda de carga localizada provocada por emissores integrados não coaxiais com geometria semelhante ao emissor Uniram e Drip Net. / The design of a lateral line of trickle irrigation requires an accurate evaluation of head losses in not only the pipe but the emitters as well. A procedure was developed to determine localized head losses within the emitters by the formulation of a mathematical model accounting for the obstruction caused by the insertion point. These localized losses can be significant when compared with the total head losses within the system, due to the large number of emitters typically installed along the lateral line. An experiment was carried out by altering flow characteristics to create Reynolds Number (R) in the interval from 7480 to 32597 to provide turbulent flow and a maximum velocity of 2.0 m s-1. The geometry of the emitter point was determined by an optical projector and sensor. An equation was formulated that allows the localized head loss calculation using the geometric characteristics of the emitter (emitter length, obstruction index and the contraction coefficient). The obtained results for 4 used models, the model esteemed satisfactorily for 2 models, and was also verified that the model presents an acting classified as \'great\', therefore, could be used to estimate localized head loss provoked by non coaxial emitters inserted in polyethylene pipe with similar geometry as the Uniram and Drip Net emitters.

Elektrische und magnetische Emitter können zur Erforschung unterschiedlicher plasmonischer Nanostrukturen genutzt werden. Indem wir die Änderung der Abstrahldynamik und in der Lebensdauer bestimmen, detektieren wir die photonische lokale Zustandsdichte. Diese Zustandsdichte, die eine Eigenschaft der Umgebung ist, ermöglicht uns nicht nur Rückschlüsse auf die elektronischen und andere physikalische Eigenschaften dieser zu treffen sondern auch die allgemeinen Eigenschaften der plasmonischen Nanostruktur im Bezug auf Licht-Materie Kopplung zu bestimmen. Eine starke Licht-Materie-Kopplung ist für die zukünftige Anwendung im Bereich der Quantentechnologien wichtig. Wenn Emitter hierbei mit plasmonischen Nanostrukturen koppeln, fokussieren letztere nicht nur das emittierte Lichts an der Oberfläche im Subwellenlängenbereich sondern ermöglichen durch die Feldüberhöhung an der Oberfläche auch eine starke Licht-Materie-Kopplung. In der Arbeit konzentrieren wir uns auf zwei grundlegend unterschiedliche plasmonische Systeme: zunächst untersuchen wir analytisch den Einfluss von Graphen auf elektrische und magnetische Emitter und diskutieren dann die Lebensdaueränderungen und Strahlungsdynamiken in der Nähe von Silber- und Goldnanostrukturen. Im ersten Teil der Arbeit analysieren wir den Einfluss von Graphen mit einer Bandlücke auf den Emitter und zeigen Möglichkeiten zur experimentellen Bestimmung der Bandlücke auf. Im zweiten Teil modellieren wir die Propagation elektromagnetischer Felder im dreidimensionalen Raum mit Hilfe der Diskontinuierlichen Galerkin Zeitraum Methode mit erweiterten Funktionalitäten. Diese verwenden wir sowohl zur theoretischen Modellierung des ersten dreidimensionalen Fluoreszenlebensdauerabbildungsmikroskopie mit einem einzelnen Quantenemitter als auch zur selbstkonsistent Beschreibung von Emittern in der Nähe eines Goldpentamers. Die Kombination der Studien betont die Stärke von Emittern elektrische, optische und magnetische Eigenschaften zu detektieren. / Electric and magnetic emitters can be used to probe different plasmonic nanostructures. By determining the modification of the radiation dynamics and the lifetimes, we can measure the photonic local density of states. This, being a property of the enviroment, does not only allow us to draw conclusions regarding the electronic and other physical properties of the latter but also regarding the general light-matter coupling properties of the plasmonic nanostructure. A strong light-matter coupling is important for future applications in quantum technology. If emitters couple specifically to plasmonic nanostructure, the latter do not only focus the emitted light at the sub-wavelength scale at the surface of the structure but also allow for such a strong light-matter coupling due to the field enhancement at the surface. In this work, we focus on two different basic plasmonic systems: first, we study analytically the influence of graphene on electric and magnetic emitters, and second we discuss lifetime modifications and radiation dynamics close to silver and gold nanostructures. In the first part of this work, we specifically focus on the influence of graphene exhibiting a finite band gap on the emitter. In the second part, we model the propagation of electromagnetic fields in three-dimensional space making use of the discontinuous Galerkin time-domain method with extended functionalities. This framework we apply to model the first three-dimensional scanning-probe fluorescence-lifetime imaging microscopy by use of a single quantum-emitter as well as for a self-consistent description of emitters in the proximity of a gold pentamer. The combination of these studies stress that the strength of emitters lies in the detection of electronic, optical and magnetic properties.

A obstrução de emissores tem sido um entrave para a microirrigação. Porém, tem-se notado poucos estudos relativos ao desenvolvimento de equipamentos que auxiliam na prevenção da obstrução de emissores nos últimos anos. Os estudos realizados nesta linha estão geralmente ligados à caracterização dos sistemas em uso. O objetivo deste trabalho foi desenvolver um sistema de filtragem com reversão automática de fluxo, de alta frequência. O sistema foi concebido para operar com água de baixa qualidade, com inversão de fluxo e limpezas automáticas e com volume mínimo de água para realização das limpezas. As decisões do controlador do sistema de filtragem têm como base a perda de carga, obtida por meio de transdutores de pressão instalados na entrada e na saída do sistema. O protótipo final é composto, basicamente, por três filtros de tela e onze válvulas solenoides controladas eletronicamente. Determinou-se a curva de perda de carga em função da vazão, a eficiência de retenção e o volume mínimo de água para limpeza dos filtros. A eficiência de retenção de partículas foi determinada em delineamento experimental inteiramente aleatorizado em esquema fatorial, sendo testados três fatores: tempo de reversão (15 e 30 s); incremento da perda de carga (25 e 50%) e concentração de sólidos (500 e 1000 mg L-1). A eficiência de retenção de sólidos totais foi de 71,7 e 78,3% para as concentrações de 500 e 1000 mg L-1, respectivamente, tendo apresentado diferença significativa a 1% de probabilidade. Entretanto, a eficiência retenção de sólidos maiores que 50 ?m (Ed > 50) foi de 98,6 ± 0,7%, não sendo significante para nenhum dos tratamentos ao nível de significância de 1%. O volume médio de água despendido durante as limpezas foi de 5,39 L por limpeza, que representou um volume de água de limpeza por volume de água filtrada de 8,0 e 12,6 L m-3, para as concentrações de 500 e 1000 mg L-1, respectivamente. Os valores de eficiência energética do sistema de filtragem variaram de 80 a 90% para a vazão de 2 m3 h-1 com pressão de entrada entre 15 a 40 mca. As limpezas do sistema de filtragem não foram totalmente eficazes na retomada da perda de carga, com tendência de aumento com o tempo. A inversão de fluxo com frequências de 11,11 e 22,22 mHz influenciou na evolução da perda de carga do sistema de filtragem, tornando-a mais lenta que a evolução para o sistema funcionando sem inversão de fluxo. Considerou-se que o sistema de filtragem desenvolvido apresentou potencial para filtragem da água de irrigação com baixa qualidade, porém necessita de manutenções periódicas para limpeza do elemento filtrante. A perda de carga admissível do sistema de filtragem deve ser o valor mais restritivo entre o critério de desempenho de retenção de partículas e o de variação de vazão do sistema de irrigação. / Emitters clogging have been a barrier to trickle irrigation. Just a few studies have been performed concerning equipments which assist in preventing emitters clogging in recent years, especially regarding to development equipment. Studies carried out on this issue are usually linked to the characterization of systems in use. The aim of this study was to develop a filtering system with automatic flow reversal of high frequency. The system is designed to operate with low quality water, with reverse flow and automatic cleanings and with minimum volume of water to perform the cleaning. Decisions by the controller of the filtration system are based on head loss, obtained by pressure transducers installed at the upstream and downstream of the system. The final prototype consists of three screen filters and eleven electronically controlled solenoid valves. The curve of head loss was determined as a function of water flow, retention efficiency and minimum volume of water required for cleaning the filters. The efficiency in particle retention was determined following a completely randomized experimental design in a factorial scheme in which three factors were tested: reversal time (15 and 30 s) increase in head loss (25 and 50%) and solids concentration (500 and 1000 mg L-1). The total solids retention efficiency was 71.7 and 78.3% for concentrations of 500 and 1000 mg L-1, respectively, presenting a significant difference at 1%. However, when analyzing the retention efficiency of solids larger than 50 ?m (Ed> 50), none of the treatments was significant at 1%, whose efficiency was 98.6 ± 0.7%. The mean volume of water expended during the cleaning was 5.39 L. It represented a volume of water for cleaning per volume of filtered water from 8.0 and 12.6 L m-3, to concentrations of 500 and 1000 mg L-1, respectively. The energy efficiency values of filtering system ranged from 80 to 90% considering flow rate of 2 m3 h-1 and inlet pressure ranging from 15 to 40 mca. The filtering system cleaning was not totally effective in reestablishing the head loss, with an upward trend over time. The reverse flow with frequency of 11.11 and 22.22 mHz influenced the head loss evolution of the filtration system, making it slower than the trend for the system running without flow reversal. The developed filtration system has potential for filtering low quality irrigation water, but it requires periodic maintenance to clean the filter element. The allowable head loss of the filter system should be the most restrictive value between the criterion of particle retention performance and the flow variation of the irrigation system because of the increase in head loss in the filters.

A busca por estratégias para otimizar a eficiência de aplicação de água tem sido objeto de estudo de vários pesquisadores. Neste sentido, destaca-se a utilização de sistemas de microirrigação com microtubos devido ao seu baixo custo e elevada uniformidade de aplicação de água, sendo uma boa alternativa para pequenos agricultores. O emissor utilizado neste trabalho foi denominado \"microtubo com múltiplas saídas\" (MMS) o qual, por se tratar de uma configuração inovadora, é um tipo de gotejador inexistente no mercado. Este sistema é caracterizado por possuir menor custo em comparação com os sistemas atuais, que utilizam microtubos, tendo em vista a menor quantidade de material necessário à sua implantação. O objetivo deste trabalho foi modelar, determinar as características hidráulicas do microtubo com múltiplas saídas e sua sensibilidade à obstrução por agentes físicos. A condução desta pesquisa dividiu-se em duas etapas. A primeira consistiu na determinação do diâmetro interno dos microtubos, em ensaios preliminares de verificação do modelo de dimensionamento dos MMS e na determinação do coeficiente de variação de fabricação, os quais foram realizados no Laboratório de Hidráulica do Departamento de Engenharia de Biossistemas da Escola Superior de Agricultura \"Luiz de Queiroz\"/USP, em Piracicaba - SP. A segunda consistiu na determinação das características hidráulicas, na modelagem do escoamento d\'água no interior do microtubo com múltiplas saídas e na avaliação da sensibilidade dos microtubos à obstrução por agentes físicos, as quais foram realizadas no Laboratoire d\'essais et de recherche des matériels d\'irrigation pertencente ao Institut national de recherche en sciences et technologies pour l\'environnement et l\'agriculture (LERMI/IRSTEA, Aix en Provence, Montpellier, França). A configuração do emissor proposto consiste em um microtubo regulador de pressão (MRP) ligado a um conector com disposição radial de onde derivam seis microtubos emissores (ME). Realizou-se simulações hidráulicas do escoamento nos MMS, utilizando o programa computacional ANSYS Fluent. Determinou-se a sensibilidade à obstrução do MMS e dos microtubos com diâmetro interno de 0,888 e 1,074 mm. O microtubo com múltiplas saídas foi menos sensível à obstrução que os outros microtubos testados, entretanto, o mesmo apresenta áreas críticas quanto à ocorrência de obstrução no interior do conector, principalmente em áreas onde a velocidade da água é próxima ou igual à zero. As diferenças máxima e mínima entre a pressão simulada e a pressão observada experimentalmente foram 13% e 0,2% respectivamente. Desse modo, a simulação não apresentou resultados totalmente satisfatórios em termos de previsão da perda de carga, entretanto, é uma importante ferramenta para identificação de pontos críticos quanto à dissipação da perda de carga e que favorecem a ocorrência de obstrução. Para microtubos, as equações utilizadas no cálculo do fator de atrito da equação de Darcy-Weisbach não apresentaram resultados satisfatórios, contradizendo às recomendações da literatura para tubos convencionais. Uma possível causa dessa discordância é que a definição da faixa do regime de escoamento para microtubos seja diferente dos tubos convencionais, sendo necessária a realização de estudos complementares para se obter resultados mais conclusivos. / The search for strategies to optimize the efficiency of water application has been studied by several researchers. In this sense, we highlight the use of microirrigation systems with microtubes due to its low cost and high uniformity of water application, being a good alternative for small farmers. The emitter used in this work was named \"microtube with multiple outlets\" (MMO) which is a kind of dripper non-existent in the market, because it is an innovative configuration. This system is characterized by having lower cost compared to existing systems that use microtubes, in view of the smaller amount of material required for its implementation. The objective of this work was to model, to determine the hydraulic characteristics of the microtube with multiple outlets and their sensitivity to clogging due physical agents. This research was divided into two stages. The first stage was determining the internal diameter of the microtubes, the lengths of the microtubes and the manufacturing coefficient of variation was conducted in the Hydraulics Laboratory, Department of Biosystems Engineering, School of Agriculture \"Luiz de Queiroz\" (ESALQ/USP) in Piracicaba - SP. The second stage was determining the hydraulic characteristics of the microtubes with multiple outlets, to model the flow of water within the microtube with multiple outlets and to evaluate a susceptibility of microtubes to physical agents. This tests were performed at the Laboratoire d\'essais et de recherche des matériels d\'irrigation belonging to the Institut national de recherche en sciences et technologies pour l\'environnement et l\'agriculture (LERMI/IRSTEA, Aix en Provence, Montpellier, France). The configuration of the proposed system consists of a supply microtube (SM) and six emitter microtubes (EM) that are connected to the supply microtube through a connector. The hydraulic simulations of flow in microtubes with multiple outlets was carried out using the software ANSYS Fluent. It was determined the MMO sensitivity to clogging and of microtubes with internal diameter of 0.888 and 1.074 mm. The microtube with multiple outlets was less sensitive to clogging than other tested microtubes, however, the MMO presents critical areas to occurrence of clogging within the connector, especially in areas where the water velocity is close or equal to zero. The maximum and minimum difference between the simulated pressure and experimentally observed pressure was 13% and 0.2 % respectively. The simulation did not provide fully satisfactory results in terms of predicting the head loss, however, it is an important tool to identify critical points of head loss and of critical points that favors the occurrence of clogging. For microtubes, the equations used to calculate the Darcy- Weisbach equation friction factor showed no satisfactory results, contradicting the recommendations from the literature for conventional tubes. One possible cause of this discrepancy is that the definition of the flow regime for microtubes is different from conventional tubes. More studies must be conducted to obtain more conclusive results are required.

Optoelectronic devices operating in the mid-wave (3-5 Μm) and long-wave (8-12 Μm) infrared (IR) regions of the electromagnetic spectrum are of a great interest for academic and industrial applications. Due to the lack of atmospheric absorption, devices operating within these spectral bands are particularly useful for spectroscopy, imaging, and dynamic scene projection. Advanced IR imaging systems have created an intense need for laboratory-based infrared scene projector (IRSP) systems which can be used for accurate simulation of real-world phenomena occurring in the IR. These IRSP systems allow for reliable, reproducible, safe, and cost-effective calibration of IR detector arrays. The current state-of-the-art technology utilized for the emitter source of IRSP systems is thermal pixel arrays (TPAs) which are based on thin film resistor technology. Thermal pixel array technology has fundamental limitations related to response time and maximum simulated apparent temperature, making them unsuitable for emulation of very hot (> 700 K) and rapidly evolving scenes. Additionally, there exists a need for dual wavelength emitter arrays for IRSP systems dedicated to calibration of dual wavelength detector arrays. This need is currently met by combining the spectral output from two separate IRSP systems. This configuration requires precise alignment of the output from both systems and results in the maximum radiance being limited to approximately half that of the capability of a given emitter array due to the optics used to combine the outputs. The high switching speed inherent to IR light-emitting diodes (LEDs) and the potential for high power output makes them an appealing candidate to replace the thermal pixel arrays used for IRSP systems. To this end, research has been carried out to develop and improve the device performance of IR LEDs based on InAs/GaSb type-II superlattices (T2SLs). A common method employed to achieve high brightness from LEDs is to incorporate multiple active regions, coupled by tunnel junctions. Tunnel junctions must provide adequate barriers to prevent carrier leakage, while at the same time remain low in tunneling resistance to prevent unwanted heating. The performance of two tunnel junction designs are compared in otherwise identical four stage InAs/GaSb superlattice LED (SLED) devices for application in IRSP systems. This research culminated in the development of a 48 Μm pitch, 512$times512 individually addressable mid-wave IR LED array based on a sixteen stage, InAs/GaSb T2SL device design. This array was hybridized to a read-in integrated circuit and exhibited a pixel yield greater than 95 %. Projections based on single element emitter results predict this array will be able to achieve a peak apparent temperature of 1350 K within the entire 3-5 Μm band. These results demonstrate the feasibility of emitter arrays intended for IRSP systems based on InAs/GaSb SLED devices. Additionally, a dual wavelength 48 Μm pitch, 8x8 emitter array based on InAs/GaSb T2SL LEDs was developed and demonstrated. This design incorporates two separate, 16 stage InAs/GaSb SL active regions with varying InAs layer thicknesses built into a single vertical heterostructure. The device architecture is a three terminal device allowing for independent control of the intensity of each emission region. Each emitter region creates a contiguous pixel, capable of being planarized and mated to drive electronics.

Energy harvesting using rectennas for infrared radiation continues to be a challenge due to the lack of fast switching diodes capable of rectification at THz frequencies. Metal insulator metal diodes which may be used at 30 THz must show adequate nonlinearity for small signal rectification such as 30 mV. In a rectenna assembly, the voltage signal received as an output from a single nanoantenna can be as small as ~30µV. Thus, only a hybrid array of nanoantennas can be sufficient to provide a signal in the ~30mV range for the diode to be able to rectify around 30THz. A metal-insulator-metal diode with highly nonlinear I-V characteristics is required in order for such small signal rectification to be possible. Such diode fabrication was found to be faced with two major fabrication challenges. The first one being the lack of a precisely controlled deposition process to allow a pinhole free insulator deposition less than 3nm in thickness. Another major challenge is the deposition of a top metal contact on the underlying insulating thin film. As a part of this research study, most of the MIM diodes were fabricated using Langmuir Blodgett monolayers deposited on a thin Ni film that was sputter coated on a silicon wafer. UV induced polymerization of the Langmuir Blodgett thin film was used to allow intermolecular crosslinking. A metal top contact was sputtered onto the underlying Langmuir Blodgett film assembly. In addition to material characterization of all the individual films using IR, UV-VIS spectroscopy, electron microscopy and atomic force microscopy, the I-V characteristics, resistance, current density, rectification ratio and responsivity with respect to the bias voltage were also measured for the electrical characterization of these MIM diodes. Further improvement in the diode rectification ratio and responsivity was obtained with Langmuir Blodgett films grown by the use of horizontally oriented organic molecules, due to a smaller tunneling distance that could be achieved in this case. These long chain polymeric molecules exhibit a two-dimensional molecular assembly thereby reducing the tunneling distance between the metal electrodes on either side of the insulating layer. Rectification ratios as high as 450:1 at ±200mV were obtained for an MIM diode configuration of Ni-LB films of Arachidic Acid films-(Au/Pd). The bandwidth of the incident radiation that can be used by this rectenna assembly is limited to 9.5% of 30THz or ±1.5THz from the center frequency based on the antenna designs which were proposed for this research. This bandwidth constraint has led to research in the field of frequency selective emitters capable of providing a narrowband emission around 30THz. Several grating structures were fabricated in the form of Ni-Si periodic arrays, in a cleanroom environment using photolithography, sputtering and deep reactive ion etching. These frequency selective samples were characterized with the help of focusing optics, monochromators and HgCdTe detectors. The results obtained from the emission spectra were utilized to calibrate a simulation model with Computer Simulation Technology (CST) which uses numerous robust solving techniques, such as the finite element method, in order to obtain the optical parameters for the model. Thereafter, a thorough analysis of the different dimensional and material parameters was performed, to understand their dependence on the emissivity of the selective emitter. Further research on the frequency selectivity of the periodic nano-disk or nano-hole array led to the temperature dependence of the simulated spectra, because the material parameters, such as refractive index or drude model collision frequency, vary with temperature. Thus, the design of frequency selective absorbers/emitters was found to be significantly affected with temperature range of operation of these structures.

No description available.

This thesis proposes and demonstrates a hydrogenated amorphous silicon passivated, inverted photovoltaic device on n-type silicon, utilizing a Laser Fired Emitter on a rear i-a- Si:H/SiOx dielectric stack. This novel low-temperature-fabricated device architecture constitutes the first demonstration of an LFE on a dielectric passivation stack. The optimization of the device is explored through Sentaurus computational modeling, predicting a potential efficiency of >20%. Proof of concept devices are fabricated using the DC Saddle Field PECVD system for the deposition of hydrogenated amorphous silicon passivation layers. Laser parameters are explored highlighting pulse energy density as a key performance determining factor. Annealing of devices in nitrogen atmosphere shows performance improvements albeit that the maximum annealing temperature is limited by the thermal stability of the passivation. A proof of concept device efficiency of 11.1% is realized forming the basis for further device optimization.

This thesis proposes and demonstrates a hydrogenated amorphous silicon passivated, inverted photovoltaic device on n-type silicon, utilizing a Laser Fired Emitter on a rear i-a- Si:H/SiOx dielectric stack. This novel low-temperature-fabricated device architecture constitutes the first demonstration of an LFE on a dielectric passivation stack. The optimization of the device is explored through Sentaurus computational modeling, predicting a potential efficiency of >20%. Proof of concept devices are fabricated using the DC Saddle Field PECVD system for the deposition of hydrogenated amorphous silicon passivation layers. Laser parameters are explored highlighting pulse energy density as a key performance determining factor. Annealing of devices in nitrogen atmosphere shows performance improvements albeit that the maximum annealing temperature is limited by the thermal stability of the passivation. A proof of concept device efficiency of 11.1% is realized forming the basis for further device optimization.

No description available.