It is well documented that engaging in resistance exercise can lead to further improvements in endurance performance. Whilst, not fully understood, it is speculated that increased motor unit recruitment, improved muscle coordination and enhanced utilisation of stored elastic energy after resistance-based exercise improves exercise economy. Nevertheless, while prolonged exposure to resistance training improves endurance performance in the long-term, a consequence of such training when unaccustomed is the appearance of exercise-induced muscle damage (EIMD). Exercise-induced muscle damage is well known to affect athletic performance requiring muscular strength and power; however, its effects on markers of endurance exercise are unclear. Therefore, the aim of this thesis was to investigate the effects of EIMD on endurance performance, with an emphasis on the physiological (oxygen uptake; , minute ventilation; ), metabolic (blood lactate; [La]), perceptual (rating of perceived exertion; RPE) and kinematic (stride length; SL, stride frequency; SF) responses during sub-maximal endurance exercise.

No description available.

Estudos têm demonstrado separadamente, a redução do desempenho aeróbio após uma tarefa de alta demanda cognitiva, e a melhora do desempenho físico através da suplementação com bochecho de carboidrato (CHO), levando à hipótese de que o bochecho com CHO possa atenuar a redução do desempenho aeróbio induzida pela fadiga mental. Portanto, nosso objetivo foi investigar se o uso do bochecho com CHO pode melhorar o desempenho físico, atividade cortical e respostas psicofisiológicas em ciclistas mentalmente fadigados submetidos a um teste incremental máximo (TIM). Métodos: 19 ciclistas treinados (7,56 ± 5,89 anos de experiência, 4,43 ± 0,45 VO2PICO, 359,61 ± 22,92 WPICO) realizaram 5 visitas ao laboratório, sendo as duas primeiras em ordem sequencial e as últimas três balanceadas de acordo com a descrição a seguir: 1) familiarização com TIM (teste preliminar), instrumentos e protocolo de FM; 2) TIM controle (CON) e segunda familiarização com o protocolo de FM; 3) TIM+FM; 4) TIM+FM+CHO; 5) TIM+FM+placebo (PLA). Respostas cardiopulmonares, potencia, percepção subjetiva de esforço (PSE) e valências afetivas foram analisadas durante o TIM, enquanto a atividade de córtex pré-frontal (CPF) e córtex motor primário (CMP) foram analisadas em intervalos regulares (a cada 25 % do TIM preliminar). As respostas psicológicas e atividade de CPF em repouso foram comparadas através do teste t de student, enquanto todas as respostas durante o TIM foram comparadas através de uma de modelos mistos. Resultados: os ciclistas mentalmente fadigados atingiram WPICO ~ 2,18 % e ~ 2.23 % maior na manipulação FM+CHO do que na manipulação FM (P = 0,09) e FM+PLA (P = 0,02). Além disso, o tempo até a exaustão na manipulação FM+CHO foi ~ 2,01 % e ~ 2,14 % maior do que na manipulação FM (P = 0,05) e FM+PLA (P = 0,03), com tamanho de efeito grande em ambos os resultados. A atividade cerebral em CPF foi maior na manipulação MF+CHO e MF+PLA do que na manipulação MF (P = 0,00). Além disso a ativação de CMP também foi maior na manipulação MF+CHO (P = 0,00) e MF+PLA (P = 0,01) do que na manipulação FM, mas nenhuma diferença foi encontrada entre os bochechos. As respostas psicofisiológicas não tiveram diferenças significantes entre as manipulações. Conclusão: O bochecho com CHO foi capaz de atenuar a perda de desempenho comparado à manipulação FM+PLA, mas não comparado à FM. Alémdisso, tanto FM+CHO quanto FM+PLA induziram maior atividade de CPF e CMP comparados à FM / Independent studies have shown a decrease in endurance performance after a high-demand cognitive task, but an improvement on endurance performance with carbohydrate (CHO) mouth rinse, thus leading to a hypothesis that the CHO mouth rinse could attenuate the mental fatiguereduced endurance performance. Therefore, our aim was to investigate if the use of CHO mouth rinse may improve physical performance, cortical activity and psychophysiological responses in mentally fatigued cyclists underwent to a maximal incremental test (MIT). Methods: 19 endurance trained cyclists (7.56 ± 5.89 years of cycling experience, 4.43 ± 0.45 VO2PEAK, 359.61 ± 22.92 WPEAK) performed 5 trials, being the two first visits in sequential and the last three in a counterbalanced order, as it follow: 1) familiarization with MIT protocol (preliminary trial), instruments and MF task; 2) MIT control (CON) and second familiarization with MF task; 3) MIT+CHO; 4) MIT+placebo (PLA). Cardiopulmonary responses, power output, ratings of perceived exertion (RPE) and affective valences were assessed through the MIT, while prefrontal cortex (PFC) and primary motor cortex (PMC) activation were obtained at regular intervals (every 25 % of the preliminary MIT). Psychological responses and PFC activation at rest were compared as using t student test, while the responses during the MIT were compared through a number of mixed model. Results: Mentally fatigued cyclists reached a WPEAK ~ 2.18 % and ~ 2.23 % higher in MF+CHO than MF (P = 0.09) and MF+PLA (P = 0.02), respectively. Moreover, time to exhaustion in MF+CHO manipulation was ~ 2.01 % and ~ 2.14 % greater in MF+CHO than in MF (P = 0.05) and MF+PLA (P = 0.03), respectively. Both performance results showed a large effect size. Cerebral activation in CPF was greater in MF+CHO and MF+PLA than in MF (P = 0.00). Accordingly, PMC activation was also greater in MF+CHO (P = 0.00) and MF+PLA (P = 0.01) than in MF, but no differences have been observed between bouth rinses. Psychophysiological responses has no significant differences between the manipulations. Conclusion: CHO mouth rinse could attenuate the reduced performance compared to MF+PLA but not compared to MF. Moreover, both MF+CHO and MF+PLA induced greater cerebral activity in PFC and PMC compared do MF

A literatura recente sugere que a fadiga mental piora o desempenho de atletas durante testes contrarrelógio (TT) de ciclismo. Assim o objetivo deste estudo foi verificar se a cafeína poderia reverter ou bloquear os efeitos negativos da fadiga mental em um contrarrelógio de 20km (TT20km). Métodos: Doze ciclistas treinados, com experiência em TT há pelo menos 2 anos, e nível de performance > 3 (34.3 ± 6.2 anos; 179.3 ± 5.1 cm; 77.6 ± 6.8 kg; 13.8 ± 4.5 % de gordura corporal; 58.9 ± 6.2 ml.kg-1.min-1; 367.0 ± 32.5 WPEAK), realizaram cinco visitas ao laboratório: 1) PRELIMINAR: para seleção dos sujeitos e familiarização com os instrumentos; 2) CONTROLE: foram realizadas três contrações voluntárias isométrica máxima (CVM), cujo maior torque encontrado entre elas definirá o valor de 70% para contração voluntária isométrica submáxima (CVIS) nas sessões seguintes. Posteriormente a CVIS, foi realizado o TT20km sem manipulação cognitiva ou suplementação; 3) FADIGA MENTAL (FM): execução do teste de atenção sustentada (RVIP), CVIS e TT20km respectivamente; 4) PLACEBO: ingestão da cápsula de placebo (FM + PLA) em seguida teste de RVIP, CVIS e TT20km; 5) CAFEÍNA: ingestão de cafeína (FM + CAF), consequentemente realizaram o teste de RVIP, CVIS e o TT20km). A atividade cerebral do córtex pré-frontal e córtex motor primário foi analisada por meio de eletroencefalografia (EEG) registrada antes e depois do teste RVIP. Igualmente, EEG do córtex pré-frontal e motor primário foi registrada durante uma contração voluntária isométrica submáxima, realizada antes do TT20km. Para as análises de comparações entre pré e pós tarefa cognitiva de atenção sustentada utilizou-se um teste T-student. Para as comparações múltiplas analisou-se por modelo misto entre a condição e a distância no TT20km, quando necessário o teste de Bonferroni foi utilizado. Resultados: CAF melhorou o desempenho em ciclistas mentalmente fatigados em ~ 1.8 % para FM e ~ 1.7 % para PLA (p = 0.00) e aumentou ~ 4.4 % para FM e ~ 3.6 % do que o placebo de WMEAN em FM + CAF (p = 0,00). A ativação cortical aumentou em ~ 4.8 % nas ondas teta de EEG após teste RVIP em FM e reduziu em FM + CAF ~ 8.8 % e FM + PLA ~ 4.8%. A razão entre PSE e WMEAN foi menor em FM + CAF do que nas outras condições (p = 0.01). Os ciclistas apresentaram maior motivação nos primeiros 2 km em FM + CAF comparado a FM e FM + PLA (p = 0.02) e maior afeto nos últimos 2 km em FM e FM + CAF do que FM + PLA (p = 0.01). Uma menor ativação cortical durante a CVIS e uma maior eficiência neuromuscular foi identificada na condição FM + CAF (p = 0.03). Conclusão: A CAF bloqueou os efeitos negativos da fadiga mental no CPF, melhorou o desempenho, diminuiu a PSE durante TT20km e aumentou a eficiência neuromuscular / Recent literature suggests that mental fatigue worsens the performance of athletes during time trial (TT) cycling tests. Thus, the aim of this study was to verify if caffeine could reverse or block the negative effects of mental fatigue in a TT of 20km (TT20km). Methods: Twelve trained cyclists with experience in TT for at least 2 years, and performance level > 3 (34.3 ± 6.2 years, 179.3 ± 5.1 cm, 77.6 ± 6.8 kg, 13.8 ± 4.5 % body fat 58.9 ± 6.2 ml .kg-1.min-1; 367.0 ± 32.5 WPEAK), carried out five visits at laboratory: 1) PRELIMINARY: for selection of subjects and familiarization with the instruments; 2) CONTROL: three maximal isometric voluntary contractions (CVM) were performed, the highest torque found between them will define the value of 70% for voluntary isometric submaximal contraction (CVIS) in the following sessions. After the CVIS, the TT20km will be performed without cognitive manipulation or supplementation; 3) MENTAL FATIGUE (FM): execution of the sustained attention test (RVIP), CVIS and TT20km respectively; 4) PLACEBO: placebo capsule intake (FM + PLA) then RVIP, CVIS and TT20km test; 5) CAFFEINE: caffeine intake (FM + CAF), consequently performed the RVIP, CVIS and TT20km tests). Brain activity of the prefrontal cortex and primary motor cortex will be analyzed by electroencephalography (EEG) recorded before and after the RVIP test. Likewise, EEG of the prefrontal cortex and primary motor will be recorded during a submaximal isometric voluntary contraction, performed before TT20km. For the analysis of comparisons between pre and post cognitive task of sustained attention was used a T-student test. For the multiple comparisons, the mixed model was analyzed for the condition and the distance in the TT20km, and the best matrix was identified for each case, when necessary the Bonferroni test was used. Results: CAF improved performance in mentally fatigued cyclists at ~ 1.8 % for FM and ~ 1.7 % for PLA (p = 0.00) and increased ~ 4.4% for FM and ~ 3.6% than WMEAN on FM + CAF (p = 0.00). Cortical activation increased by ~ 4.8 % in the theta EEG waves after RVIP test in FM and reduced in FM + CAF ~ 8.8 % and FM + PLA ~ 4.8 %. The ratio of RPE to WMEAN was lower in FM + CAF than in other conditions (p = 0.01). The ciclists started the TT20km more motivated in first 2 km (p = 0.02) and finished with more pleasure in the last 2km in FM and FM + CAF than in FM + PLA (p = 0.01). Lower cortical activation during CVIS and greater neuromuscular efficiency was identified in the FM + CAF condition (p = 0.03). Conclusion: CAF blocked the negative effects of mental fatigue on CPF, improved performance, decreased PSE over TT20km and increased neuromuscular efficiency

The present investigation was designed to examine the effects of the positive manipulation of information on self-efficacy and subsequent performance of 180 female subjects. High, moderate, and low self-efficacy subjects were randomly assigned to a treatment condition in a 3 x 4 x 3 (preexisting self-efficacy x efficacy information source x trials) factorial design. Information from the three efficacy sources of performance accomplishments, verbal persuasion, and vicarious experience was manipulated towards success after subjects completed a muscular leg endurance task. The results supported self-efficacy theory with high self-efficacy subjects extending their legs significantly longer than moderate and low self-efficacy subjects. However, subjects did not differentially [sic] respond to the manipulation of the efficacy information. Results are discussed in terms of efficacy as a mediator of performance on an endurance task as well as the lack of differential changes in efficacy based on the source from which that information is derived.

Aim The overall aim of this study was to develop a broader understanding on how to optimize the organization of aerobic endurance training programs, and especially how to better organize high-intensity training (HIT) and low intensity training (LIT) to give an optimum endurance performance progress. Method This study compared the effects of two different training organization methods in trained cross-country (XC) skiers and biathletes. During a 5 week intervention period, one group of athletes (n = 10, 7 men and 3 women, age 23 ± 9 years) performed block periodization (BP) training with 5-1-3-1-1 HIT sessions in the respective weeks. The other group of athletes(n = 9, 7 men and 2 women, age 22 ± 5) followed a more traditional periodization (TRAD) method performing 2-2-3-2-2 HIT sessions. LIT was interspersed between the HIT sessions so that both groups performed similar total volumes of HIT and LIT during the intervention period. Results The BP group increased relative and absolute VO2max (2.6 ± 3.6% and 2.0 ± 2.5%, P < 0.05) and time to exhaustion (6.1 ± 6.4%, P < 0.01). No changes were seen in the TRAD group on relative or absolute VO2max (0.8 ± 3.5% and -0.1 ± 3.0%) or time to exhaustion (-2.0 ± 7.7%). Mean effects size (ES) of the relative and absolute improvement in VO2max and time to exhaustion revealed small to moderate effects of performing BP training vs. TRAD training (ES range from 0.51 to 1.14). Conclusions This study indicates that organizing endurance training in XC skiers with block periodization training give better adaptations compared to performing traditional periodization training during a 5 week training period when performing similar volumes of high-intensity and low intensity training.

Blodlaktatkurvan används inom uthållighetsidrotten för att styra träningen samt för att utvärdera och förutsäga prestation. För att ytterligare beskriva denna kurva används ett flertal laktattröskelkoncept. Det starka sambandet mellan prestation och olika laktattröskelkoncept har gjort att det finns ett stort intresse för så kallad tröskelträning. Begreppet är dock omdiskuterat och uppfattningen att träning på tröskelintensitet skulle vara optimal är ifrågasatt. Samtidigt har tidigare studier gjort det svårt att dra tydliga slutsatser pga. brist i metoder, stor variation i använda tröskelkoncept och att träningen styrts på annat sätt än utifrån uppmätta blodlaktattrösklar. Många studier är dessutom baserade på mindre tränade deltagare vilket gör att resultaten inte nödvändigtvis är överförbara på mer vältränade individer. Syftet var därför att genom en litteraturstudie undersöka tröskelträning för mer vältränade individer där träningen helt eller delvis styrts utifrån ett laktattröskelkoncept. Frågeställningarna var (1) vad är tröskelintensitet och (2) vilka effekter har sådan träning. I resultatet inkluderades totalt åtta studier, tre observationsstudier och fem experimentella studier. Dessa studier använde ett flertal olika tröskelkoncept och således även flera olika sätt att kategorisera och ange intensitet. De inkluderade studierna varierade också stort i utformning, rapportering av genomförd träning och vilka parametrar som mättes. Utryckt i förhållande till procent av maximalt syreupptag (VO2max) var det ingen studie som visade på en förbättring av den anaeroba tröskeln. För övriga här rapporterade parametrar var resultaten motstridiga. Uppsatsen visade att det inte tycks finnas någon enskild intensitet som är optimal, varken med avseende på att förbättra laktattröskeln, testlopp, VO2max, arbetsekonomi, critical power eller hastigheten på VO2max. Vidare framkom ingen tydlig definition av tröskelintensitet. För att bättre förstå effekterna av och samspelet mellan intensitet, volym och frekvens behövs det fler studier som är väl kontrollerade utifrån en individuellt uppmätt laktattröskel. / The blood lactate curve is used in endurance sports for analysis and prediction of performance as well as to prescribe exercise. To further describe this curve, multiple lactate threshold concepts are being used. A strong correlation between these concepts and performance has led to a large interest in how to train to improve the lactate threshold. Training at threshold intensity has been suggested to be optimal but this statement has been questioned. At the same time, previous research makes it hard to draw firm conclusion because of the methods being used. Thus, the aim of this paper was to review the scientific literature to find out (1) what is threshold intensity and (2) what are the effects of this training. A total number of eight studies were included, three observational studies and five experimental studies. Since these studies varied in the threshold concepts being used, the categorization and prescription of intensity varied as well. The studies also varied in prescribed training, reporting of conducted training and measures being used. Expressed as percentage of maximal oxygen consumption (VO2max), no study reported an improvement of the anaerobic lactate threshold.    There seems to be no optimal intensity to improve the lactate threshold, time trial performance, VO2max, work efficiency, critical power nor the speed at VO2max. Also, no clear definition of threshold intensity was found in the literature. To further understand the effects of and interplay between intensity, volume and frequency more studies using the individual lactate threshold need to be conducted.

A literatura recente sugere que a fadiga mental piora o desempenho de atletas durante testes contrarrelógio (TT) de ciclismo. Assim o objetivo deste estudo foi verificar se a cafeína poderia reverter ou bloquear os efeitos negativos da fadiga mental em um contrarrelógio de 20km (TT20km). Métodos: Doze ciclistas treinados, com experiência em TT há pelo menos 2 anos, e nível de performance > 3 (34.3 ± 6.2 anos; 179.3 ± 5.1 cm; 77.6 ± 6.8 kg; 13.8 ± 4.5 % de gordura corporal; 58.9 ± 6.2 ml.kg-1.min-1; 367.0 ± 32.5 WPEAK), realizaram cinco visitas ao laboratório: 1) PRELIMINAR: para seleção dos sujeitos e familiarização com os instrumentos; 2) CONTROLE: foram realizadas três contrações voluntárias isométrica máxima (CVM), cujo maior torque encontrado entre elas definirá o valor de 70% para contração voluntária isométrica submáxima (CVIS) nas sessões seguintes. Posteriormente a CVIS, foi realizado o TT20km sem manipulação cognitiva ou suplementação; 3) FADIGA MENTAL (FM): execução do teste de atenção sustentada (RVIP), CVIS e TT20km respectivamente; 4) PLACEBO: ingestão da cápsula de placebo (FM + PLA) em seguida teste de RVIP, CVIS e TT20km; 5) CAFEÍNA: ingestão de cafeína (FM + CAF), consequentemente realizaram o teste de RVIP, CVIS e o TT20km). A atividade cerebral do córtex pré-frontal e córtex motor primário foi analisada por meio de eletroencefalografia (EEG) registrada antes e depois do teste RVIP. Igualmente, EEG do córtex pré-frontal e motor primário foi registrada durante uma contração voluntária isométrica submáxima, realizada antes do TT20km. Para as análises de comparações entre pré e pós tarefa cognitiva de atenção sustentada utilizou-se um teste T-student. Para as comparações múltiplas analisou-se por modelo misto entre a condição e a distância no TT20km, quando necessário o teste de Bonferroni foi utilizado. Resultados: CAF melhorou o desempenho em ciclistas mentalmente fatigados em ~ 1.8 % para FM e ~ 1.7 % para PLA (p = 0.00) e aumentou ~ 4.4 % para FM e ~ 3.6 % do que o placebo de WMEAN em FM + CAF (p = 0,00). A ativação cortical aumentou em ~ 4.8 % nas ondas teta de EEG após teste RVIP em FM e reduziu em FM + CAF ~ 8.8 % e FM + PLA ~ 4.8%. A razão entre PSE e WMEAN foi menor em FM + CAF do que nas outras condições (p = 0.01). Os ciclistas apresentaram maior motivação nos primeiros 2 km em FM + CAF comparado a FM e FM + PLA (p = 0.02) e maior afeto nos últimos 2 km em FM e FM + CAF do que FM + PLA (p = 0.01). Uma menor ativação cortical durante a CVIS e uma maior eficiência neuromuscular foi identificada na condição FM + CAF (p = 0.03). Conclusão: A CAF bloqueou os efeitos negativos da fadiga mental no CPF, melhorou o desempenho, diminuiu a PSE durante TT20km e aumentou a eficiência neuromuscular / Recent literature suggests that mental fatigue worsens the performance of athletes during time trial (TT) cycling tests. Thus, the aim of this study was to verify if caffeine could reverse or block the negative effects of mental fatigue in a TT of 20km (TT20km). Methods: Twelve trained cyclists with experience in TT for at least 2 years, and performance level > 3 (34.3 ± 6.2 years, 179.3 ± 5.1 cm, 77.6 ± 6.8 kg, 13.8 ± 4.5 % body fat 58.9 ± 6.2 ml .kg-1.min-1; 367.0 ± 32.5 WPEAK), carried out five visits at laboratory: 1) PRELIMINARY: for selection of subjects and familiarization with the instruments; 2) CONTROL: three maximal isometric voluntary contractions (CVM) were performed, the highest torque found between them will define the value of 70% for voluntary isometric submaximal contraction (CVIS) in the following sessions. After the CVIS, the TT20km will be performed without cognitive manipulation or supplementation; 3) MENTAL FATIGUE (FM): execution of the sustained attention test (RVIP), CVIS and TT20km respectively; 4) PLACEBO: placebo capsule intake (FM + PLA) then RVIP, CVIS and TT20km test; 5) CAFFEINE: caffeine intake (FM + CAF), consequently performed the RVIP, CVIS and TT20km tests). Brain activity of the prefrontal cortex and primary motor cortex will be analyzed by electroencephalography (EEG) recorded before and after the RVIP test. Likewise, EEG of the prefrontal cortex and primary motor will be recorded during a submaximal isometric voluntary contraction, performed before TT20km. For the analysis of comparisons between pre and post cognitive task of sustained attention was used a T-student test. For the multiple comparisons, the mixed model was analyzed for the condition and the distance in the TT20km, and the best matrix was identified for each case, when necessary the Bonferroni test was used. Results: CAF improved performance in mentally fatigued cyclists at ~ 1.8 % for FM and ~ 1.7 % for PLA (p = 0.00) and increased ~ 4.4% for FM and ~ 3.6% than WMEAN on FM + CAF (p = 0.00). Cortical activation increased by ~ 4.8 % in the theta EEG waves after RVIP test in FM and reduced in FM + CAF ~ 8.8 % and FM + PLA ~ 4.8 %. The ratio of RPE to WMEAN was lower in FM + CAF than in other conditions (p = 0.01). The ciclists started the TT20km more motivated in first 2 km (p = 0.02) and finished with more pleasure in the last 2km in FM and FM + CAF than in FM + PLA (p = 0.01). Lower cortical activation during CVIS and greater neuromuscular efficiency was identified in the FM + CAF condition (p = 0.03). Conclusion: CAF blocked the negative effects of mental fatigue on CPF, improved performance, decreased PSE over TT20km and increased neuromuscular efficiency

Abstract available in the Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise.

The purpose of this review is twofold: to elucidate the utility of resistance training for endurance athletes, and provide the practitioner with evidenced-based periodization strategies for concurrent strength and endurance training in athletic populations. Both low-intensity exercise endurance (liee) and high-intensity exercise endurance (hiee) have been shown to improve as a result of maximal, high force, low velocity (hflv) and explosive, low-force, high-velocity strength training. Hflv strength training is recommended initially to develop a neuromuscular base for endurance athletes with limited strength training experience. A sequenced approach to strength training involving phases of strength-endurance, basic strength, strength, and power will provide further enhancements in liee and hiee for high-level endurance athletes.