A critical requirement of any remote microgrid is its capability to control the balance between electric generation and load within the confines of the microgrid itself. The integration of significant amounts of “as available” renewable generation to any electric grid (macro or micro) makes it more difficult to maintain this balance and can result in large frequency deviations on a microgrid. Ancillary services provide the resources required to maintain the instantaneous and ongoing balance between generation and load. Battery energy storage systems (BESS) can provide regulating reserves, a type of ancillary service, by modulating active power for frequency control, referred to as load frequency control (LFC), to reduce frequency deviations caused by sudden changes in renewable generation. Historically, the most common methodology for reducing frequency disturbances exacerbated by wind plants with BESS systems is ramp rate control and more recently lead compensation. This thesis proposed a modified lead compensator for use in microgrid applications. A PSS®E microgrid model, based upon existing validated models, was developed to test the effectiveness of the LFC controllers used to dispatch the BESS as a regulating resource to allow increased wind energy penetration levels on remote microgrids. A model of the remote microgrid of the island of Maui, Hawaii was chosen as the basis for the designs. Daily wind power data from 2012 was classified and indexed on an hourly basis by severity of variation. The worst hour for power variation from the wind plants was identified from this indexing and used as the basis for simulating the LFC controllers. The results compared the effectiveness of droop, ramp rate, lead compensation, and modified lead compensation controllers in reducing the variability in the grid frequency caused by changes in wind power generation. An RMS of variation with respect to an average over different time windows was used as the comparison metric. The combined modified lead compensator with ramp rate control showed the best performance of the overall system behavior. / text

This work considers how various integrated energy systems can be managed in order to provide economic or energetic benefits. Energy systems can gain additional degrees of freedom by incorporating some form of energy storage (in this work, thermal energy storage), and the increasing penetration of smart grid technologies provides a wealth of data for both modeling and management. Data used for the system models here come primarily from the Pecan Street Smart Grid Demonstration Project in Austin, Texas, USA. Other data are from the Austin Energy Mueller Energy Center and the University of Texas Hal C. Weaver combined heat and power plant. Systems considered in this work include thermal energy storage, chiller plants, combined heat and power plants, turbine inlet cooling, residential air conditioning, and solar photovoltaics. These systems are modeled and controlled in integrated environments in order to provide system benefits. In a district cooling system with thermal energy storage, combined heat and power, and turbine inlet cooling, model-based optimization strategies are able to reduce peak demand and decrease cooling electricity costs by 79%. Smart grid data are employed to consider a system of 900 residential homes in Austin. In order to make the system model tractable for a model predictive controller, a reduced-order home modeling strategy is developed that maps thermostat set points to air conditioner electricity consumption. When the model predictive controller is developed for the system, the system is able to reduce total peak demand by 9%. Further work with the model of 900 residential homes presents a modified dual formulation for determining the optimal prices that produce a desired result in the residential homes. By using the modified dual formulation, it is found that the optimal pricing strategy for peak demand reduction is a critical peak pricing rate structure, and that those prices can be used in place of centralized control strategies to achieve peak reduction goals. / text

Lithium-ion batteries are being intensely pursued as energy storage devices because they provide higher energy and power densities compared to other battery systems such as lead-acid and nickel-metal hydride batteries. This dissertation (i) explores the use of a low-temperature microwave-assisted synthesis process to obtain aliovalently-doped lithium transition-metal phosphates and lower-valent vanadium oxide spinels, some of which are difficult to obtain by conventional high-temperature processes, and (ii) presents an investigation of the electrochemical properties of the aliovantly-doped phosphate cathodes and doped lithium manganese oxide and oxyfluoride spinel cathodes in lithium-ion batteries. Following the introduction and general experimental procedures, respectively, in Chapters 1 and 2, Chapter 3 first focuses on understanding of how the inductive effect and structural features in lithium transition-metal borate, silicate, and phosphate cathodes affect the M²⁺ʹ³⁺redox energies. It is found that the magnitude of the voltages delivered by the polyanion cathodes can be predicted based simply on the coordination of the transition-metal ion. Furthermore, the differences in the voltages delivered by the phosphates and pyrophosphates are explained by considering the resonance structures and their contribution to the covalency of the polyanion. Chapter 4 presents a low-temperature microwave-assisted solvothermal process to substitute 20 atom % V³⁺ for Mn²⁺ in LiMnPO₄. It is shown that the solubility of vanadium in LiMnPO₄ decreases upon heating the doped samples to ≥ 575 °C, demonstrating the importance of employing a low-temperature process to achieve aliovalent doping in LiMnPO₄. It is further demonstrated that by increasing the vanadium content in the material, the discharge capacity in the first cycle could be increased without any additional carbon coating. Subsequent X-ray absorption spectroscopy data reveal that the better performance is facilitated by enhanced Mn-O hybridization upon incorporating vanadium into the lattice. Chapter 5 explores the influence of various factors, such as the oxidation state of Mn, electronegativity of the dopant cation Mn+, and the dissociation energy of M-O bond, on the electrochemical properties of cation-doped oxide and oxyfluoride spinel cathodes. As an extension, Chapter 6 presents the effect of processing conditions on the surface concentration of the dopant cation Mn+. Chapter 7 presents an extension of the low-temperature microwave-assisted synthesis process to obtain AV₂O₄ (Mg, Fe, Mn, and Co) spinel oxides. The method is remarkably effective in reducing the synthesis time and energy use due to the efficiency of dielectric heating compared to conventional heating. The ability to access V³⁺ is facilitated by the relative positions of the energy levels of the cations in solution, which is lower than that in the solid, and the use of a strong reducing solvent like TEG. Finally, Chapter 8 provides a summary of the salient findings in this dissertation. / text

In this work I describe various approaches to electrochemical energy storage at the grid-scale. Chapter 1 provides an introduction to energy storage and an overview of the history and development of flow batteries. Chapter 2 describes work on the hydrogen-chlorine regenerative fuel cell, detailing its development and the record-breaking performance of the device. Chapter 3 dives into catalyst materials for such a fuel cell, focusing on ruthenium oxide based alloys to be used as chlorine redox catalysts. Chapter 4 introduces and details the development of a performance model for a hydrogen-bromine cell. Chapter 5 delves into the more recent work I have done, switching to applications of quinone chemistries in flow batteries. It focuses on the pairing of one particular quinone (2,7-anthraquinone disulfonic acid) with bromine, and highlights the promising performance characteristics of a device based on this type of chemistry. / Engineering and Applied Sciences

In this thesis, a capacitor semi-active hybrid energy storage system for electric vehicle is proposed. A DC-to-DC bi-directional converter is required to couple the supercapacitor to the system DC bus. Through literature reviews, it was decided that a dual-bridge resonant converter with HF transformer isolation is best suited for the hybrid energy storage application. First, a dual-bridge series resonant converter with capacitive output filter is proposed. Modified gating scheme is applied to the converter instead of the 50% duty cycle gating scheme. Comparing to the 50% duty cycle gating scheme where only four switches work in ZVS, The modified gating scheme allows all eight switches working in ZVS at design point with high load level, and seven switches working in ZVS under other conditions. Next, a dual-bridge LCL-type series resonant converter with capacitive output filter is proposed. Similarly, the modified gating scheme is applied to the converter. This converter shows further improvement in ZVS ability. Operating principles, design examples, simulation results and experimental results of the two newly proposed converters are also presented. In the last part of the thesis, a capacitor semi-active hybrid energy storage system is built to test if the proposed converters are compatible to the system. The dual-bridge LCL-type series resonant converter is placed in parallel to the supercapacitor. The simulation and experimental results of the hybrid energy storage system match closely to the theoretical waveforms. / Graduate

Wind energy has dramatically changed the energy portfolio of Texas and more specifically, a region covering 75% of the state designated as ERCOT (Electric Reliability Council of Texas). Hardly existent at all ten years ago, the amount of capacity the wind farms provide is over 9000MW and accounts for 10% of the total generation. Due to the intermittent nature of wind and limitations of transmission lines, short and long term storage of this energy would benefit wind farms and the grid as a whole. This paper studies the relationship between wind, storage and real time electricity prices by analyzing prices and simulating a wind farm with different wind storage strategies over the course of a year. Based on these simulations, it is found that an ideal storage medium with no losses could be in the money for $17.50/kW for long term storage and $1,998/kW for short term storage for prices similar to 2009-2010. / text

To meet ambitious upcoming state renewable portfolio standards (RPSs), respond to customer demand for “green” electricity choices and to move towards more renewable, domestic and clean sources of energy, many utilities and power producers are accelerating deployment of wind, solar photovoltaic and solar thermal generating facilities. These sources of electricity, particularly wind power, are highly variable and difficult to forecast. To manage this variability, utilities can increase availability of fossil fuel-dependent backup generation, but this approach will eliminate some of the emissions benefits associated with renewable energy. Alternately, energy storage could provide needed ancillary services for renewables. Energy storage could also support other operational needs for utilities, providing greater system resiliency, zero emission ancillary services for other generators, faster responses than current backup generation and lower marginal costs than some fossil fueled alternatives. These benefits might justify the high capital cost associated with energy storage. Quantitative analysis of the role energy storage can have in improving economic dispatch, however, is limited. To examine the potential benefits of energy storage availability, a generalized unit commitment model of thermal generating units and energy storage facilities is developed. Initial study will focus on the city of Austin, Texas. While Austin Energy’s proximity to and collaborative partnerships with The University of Texas at Austin facilitated collaboration, their ambitious goal to produce 30-35% of their power from renewable sources by 2020, as well as their continued leadership in smart grid technology implementation makes them an excellent initial test case. The model developed here will be sufficiently flexible that it can be used to study other utilities or coherent regions. Results from the energy storage deployment scenarios studied here show that if all costs are ignored, large quantities of seasonal storage are preferred, enabling storage of plentiful wind generation during winter months to be dispatched during high cost peak periods in the summer. Such an arrangement can yield as much as $94 million in yearly operational cost savings, but might cost hundreds of billions to implement. Conversely, yearly cost reductions of $40 million can be achieved with one CAES facility and a small fleet of electrochemical storage devices. These results indicate that small quantities of storage could have significant operational benefit, as they manage only the highest cost hours of the year, avoiding the most expensive generators while improving utilization of renewable generation throughout the year. Further study using a modified unit commitment model can help to narrow the performance requirements of storage, clarify optimal storage portfolios and determine the optimal siting of this storage within the grid. / text

Successful development of the electric power grid of the future, hereinafter referred to as a smart grid, implicitly demands the capability to model the behavior, performance, and cost of distribution-level smart grid components. The modeling and simulation of such individual components, together with their overall interaction, will provide a foundation for the design and configuration of a smart grid. It is the primary intent of this thesis, to provide a basic insight into the energy transfer of various distribution-level components by modeling and simulating their dynamic behavior. The principal operations of a smart grid must be considered, including variable renewable generation, energy storage, power electronic interfaces, variable load, and plug-in electric vehicles. The methodology involves deriving the mathematical equations of components, and, using the MATLAB/Simulink environment, creating modules for each component. Ultimately, these individual modules may be connected together via a voltage interface to perform various analyses, such as the treatment of harmonics, or to acquire an understanding of design parameters such as capacity, runtime, and optimal asset utilization. / text

Η μελέτη της δυνατότητας αποθήκευσης ενέργειας σε σύνθετα συστήματα ελαστομερικής μήτρας με ενσωματωμένα ανόργανα νανοεγκλείσματα, παρουσιάζει μεγάλο ενδιαφέρον τόσο από τη πλευρά της έρευνας όσο και από τη πλευρά των εφαρμογών. Η μεγάλη τους ανάπτυξη οφείλεται, κυρίως, στην ηλεκτρική συμπεριφορά που παρουσιάζεται σε εναλλασσόμενο πεδίο αλλά και στο ευρύ φάσμα εφαρμογών που περιλαμβάνει τις δομικές και μηχανικές εφαρμογές, τις ηλεκτρικές και ηλεκτρονικές εφαρμογές και τέλος εφαρμογές σε πεδία όπως η οπτική, οπτοηλεκτρονική, βίο- νανοτεχνολογία και σε διατάξεις αποθήκευσης ενέργειας. Στο πρώτο μέρος της διπλωματικής εργασίας παρουσιάζονται οι βασικές αρχές που αφορούν τα σύνθετα υλικά, τη θεωρία των διηλεκτρικών, την ηλεκτρική απόκριση σύνθετων υλικών με ελαστομερική μήτρα και τις μεθόδους αποθήκευσης ενέργειας σε τέτοια συστήματα. Στο δεύτερο μέρος εξετάζεται η διηλεκτρική απόκριση ελαστομερικών σύνθετων υλικών με ενσωματωμένα νανοσωματίδια στρωματικά άλατα πυριτίου και η δυνατότητα αποθήκευσης ενέργειας μέσω της συνάρτησης πυκνότητας ενέργειας. / The study of the energy storage efficiency in elastomeric matrix composites with embedded inorganic nano-inclusions, presents an increasing interest not only from the research point of view, but also from the technological applications side. Their increased development is mainly ought to their electric behavior, under the influence of an alternating field, but also to a wide range of applications, which include structural and mechanical applications, electric and electronic applications and finally, applications in fields such as optical, optoelectrical, and bio-nanotechnology. At the first part of this final project basic issues concerning composite materials, the theory of dielectrics, electric response of composites materials in a elastomeric matrix, and the methods of energy storing at the examined systems are presented. In the second part, the dielectric response of elastomeric composites with embedded layered silicates nanoinclusions is investigated. Finally, the energy storage efficiency of the nanocomposites is examined via the density of energy.

Τα σύνθετα υλικά πολυμερικής μήτρας - ανόργανων/κεραμικών εγκλεισμάτων ελκύουν όλο και περισσότερο το ενδιαφέρον χάρη στο ευρύ φάσμα των εφαρμογών. Ως σύνθετο υλικό ορίζεται το υλικό το οποίο αποτελείται από τουλάχιστον 2 διαφορετικές διακριτές μεταξύ τους φάσεις. Συνδυάζοντας τις ιδιότητες της μήτρας και του εγκλείσματος έχουμε ένα υλικό με νέες ιδιότητες. Οι ηλεκτρικές ιδιότητες των σύνθετων υλικών πολυμερικής μήτρας τους δίνουν σημαντικό ρόλο στην βιομηχανία της μικροηλεκτρονικής καθώς μπορούν να χρησιμοποιηθούν σαν διηλεκτρικά υλικά σε συσκευές αποθήκευσης ενέργειας, σαν στοιχεία κυκλωμάτων αλλά και σαν μονωτές παρεμβολών ηλεκτρομαγνητικής ακτινοβολίας Στην παρούσα εργασία χρησιμοποιήθηκε ως μήτρα εποξειδική ρητίνη και σαν έγκλεισμα καρβίδιο του Βορίου ( Β4C). To Β4C είναι το τρίτο σκληρότερο υλικό, μετά το διαμάντι και το κυβικό νιτρίδιο του Βορίου, έχει χαμηλή πυκνότητα και πολύ καλές μηχανικές ιδιότητες. Μέχρι πρότινος χρησιμοποιούταν κυρίως σε πλάκες θωράκισης και σαν απορροφητικό νετρονίων στην πυρηνική βιομηχανία αλλά τελευταίες μελέτες υποδεικνύουν και πολύ καλές ηλεκτρικές ιδιότητες και χρήση στην μόνωση παρεμβολών ηλεκτρομαγνητικής ακτινοβολίας. Στην παρούσα εργασία παρασκευάστηκαν 6 δοκίμια εποξειδικής ρητίνης και B4C, με μεταβαλλόμενη συγκέντρωση της εγκλεισμένης φάσης, έτσι ώστε να εξεταστεί εμπεριστατωμένα η σχέση -συγκέντρωσης εγκλεισμένης φάσης και ηλεκτρικών ιδιοτήτων-. Για τον διηλεκτρικό χαρακτηρισμό των δοκιμίων χρησιμοποιήθηκε διάταξη Διηλεκτρικής Φασματοσκοπίας (Broadband Dielectric Spectroscopy) με μεταβαλλόμενη θερμοκρασία στον χώρο μετρήσεων. Το εύρος συχνοτήτων στο οποίο έλαβε χώρα το πείραμα ήταν 10-1 - 107 Hz και το θερμοκρασιακό εύρος 30oC-160oC. Τα αποτελέσματα του ηλεκτρικού χαρακτηρισμού υποδηλώνουν την ύπαρξη τριών διεργασιών, στο εξεταζόμενο φάσμα συχνοτήτων. Στις υψηλές συχνότητες είχαμε την εμφάνιση της διεργασίας της β-χαλάρωσης, η οποία σχετίζεται με τον επαναπροσανατολισμό των πλευρικών πολικών ομάδων της πολυμερικής αλυσίδας, στις μεσαίες συχνότητες είχαμε την εμφάνιση της α-χαλάρωσης, η οποία σχετίζεται με την μετάπτωση από την υαλώδη στην ελαστομερική φάση της πολυμερικής μήτρας και τέλος στις χαμηλές συχνότητες παρατηρήθηκε το φαινόμενο Maxwell-Wagner-Sillars το οποίο σχετίζεται με την διεπιφανειακή πόλωση. / Nowadays, polymer matrix composites filled with inorganic/ceramic inclusions gather the scientific interest because of their vast uses in numerous applications. A composite refers to a materials system that consists of at least two different separated phases. Combining the properties of the matrix and the filler we achieve a material with superior properties than that of its constituents. The electrical properties of polymer matrix composites give them a significant position in the microelectronics industry because of their potential applications such as energy storage devices, welding elements in circuit and electromagnetic interference shielding. In the present study as a matrix was used a commercially available epoxy resin and as a filler Boron carbide (B4C) in the form of powder. Boron carbide is the third hardest material on earth after diamond and cubic Boron nitride, with low density and excellent mechanical properties. Until recently Boron carbide was used primarily in armor plates and as a neutron absorber in the nuclear industry but latest studies suggest interesting electrical properties and possible applications in the electromagnetic interference shielding. In this study 6 epoxy resin – Boron carbide specimens were manufactured, varying the concentration of the encapsulated phase, in order to investigate thoroughly the dependence of the filler content in the presented results. For the dielectric characterization of the specimens we used a Broadband Dielectric Spectroscopy device varying the frequency (10-1 - 107 Hz) and temperature range (30oC-160oC). The results of the dielectric characterization suggest the existence of three distinct relaxation processes which can be attributed to the interfacial polarization, known as Maxwell-Wagner-Sillars effect, glass to rubber transition and reorientation of polar side groups of the polymeric matrix.