Magister Philosophiae - MPhil / Increasing energy needs globally have recently led to an interest in effectively bringing energy services in the trading system. Energy services were part of the Uruguay Round of negotiations, whose main achievement was the General Agreement on Trade in Services(GATS). The objective of the GATS is to achieve progressive liberalisation and reduction or elimination of trade barriers of all services sectors, including energy services. The GATS has made commendable progress in liberalising many service sectors, however it has not made meaningful progress with energy services. Furthermore though the SADC region engages in energy services trade through bilateral and regional agreements, a variety of barriers inhibit major successes from being achieved. Effective energy services trade and liberalisation has therefore proved problematic both at the multilateral, regional and bilateral level. This study,seeks to investigate why energy services liberalisation and trade at the multilateral, regional and bilateral level is problematic, with a particular focus on the SADC region.

Esta tese apresenta o Direito de Acesso à Energia (DAE) como parte do Direito ao Desenvolvimento (DD) o qual é um desmembramento dos Direitos Humanos (DHs) previstos na Declaração Universal assinada em 1948. Percorre a evolução histórica desses Direitos para chegar ao modelo de desenvolvimento mais colaborativo discutido na década de 90 e no início deste Século. Apontam-se os compromissos do Estado contemporâneo e dos seus governantes para o atendimento dos Direitos que são inerentes a todos os cidadãos. Demonstra que o DAE é pré-condição e um meio para o exercício de outros DHs como o Direito à vida, à moradia, ao trabalho, à água, ao mínimo alimentar e à inclusão digital, esta última decorrente do avanço do cyber-space e da global society e por isso um dever irrecusável do Governo e do Estado. Depois se descreve a estrutura normativa dos serviços de energia que começaram como públicos transitaram pela denominação de utilidade pública e essencial para no final serem todos serviços ao público, independentemente do regime de concessão ou autorização. Além disso, também se analisa a diferença entre as políticas energéticas de tarifa social e o Programa Luz para Todos (LpT) num nítido reconhecimento das obrigações governamentais e estatais. No estudo de caso narram-se alguns exemplos de localidades onde o esforço da população, aliado à tecnologia e vontade política se gera energia e como isso se fez dos seus usuários os protagonistas da sua própria história. Por fim, confirma-se que os DHs são Direitos em movimento e por isso não há como estabelecer a quantidade mínima de energia sendo o DAE a base para todos os outros Direitos. / The purpose of this dissertation is to present in this 21st Century, the Energy Right (ER) as part of the Right to Development (RD), which unfolds from the Human Rights (HRs) established in the Universal Declaration signed in 1948. It covers the historical evolution of these Rights to reach the more collaborative Development model discussed in the nineties and in the beginning of this Century. It points out the commitments of the contemporaneous State and their governors as to the compliance with the Rights that are inherent to all citizens. It has also been demonstrated that the ER is a prerequirement and a mean for the exercise of other HRs such as the Right to life, to housing, to work, to water, to basic food and to digital inclusion, this latter arising from the development of the cyber-space and of global society and, hence, an undeniable duty of the government and of the State. Subsequently, it describes the normative structure of energy services that started as public, were temporarily referred to as of public and essential interest and in the end were all established as services to public, regardless of the concession system or authorization. Moreover, it also analyses the difference between the energy policies for social rate and the Program Luz para Todos (Light for All) in a clear acknowledgement of the government and state obligations. The case study depicts some examples of locations where the population effort allied to the technology and political will generates energy and how that transformed users into main characters of their own history. Finally, it is confirmed that the HR are Rights in movement and, thus, one cannot establish a minimum amount of energy inasmuch as the ER is the base for all other Rights in The XXI Century.

Esta tese apresenta o Direito de Acesso à Energia (DAE) como parte do Direito ao Desenvolvimento (DD) o qual é um desmembramento dos Direitos Humanos (DHs) previstos na Declaração Universal assinada em 1948. Percorre a evolução histórica desses Direitos para chegar ao modelo de desenvolvimento mais colaborativo discutido na década de 90 e no início deste Século. Apontam-se os compromissos do Estado contemporâneo e dos seus governantes para o atendimento dos Direitos que são inerentes a todos os cidadãos. Demonstra que o DAE é pré-condição e um meio para o exercício de outros DHs como o Direito à vida, à moradia, ao trabalho, à água, ao mínimo alimentar e à inclusão digital, esta última decorrente do avanço do cyber-space e da global society e por isso um dever irrecusável do Governo e do Estado. Depois se descreve a estrutura normativa dos serviços de energia que começaram como públicos transitaram pela denominação de utilidade pública e essencial para no final serem todos serviços ao público, independentemente do regime de concessão ou autorização. Além disso, também se analisa a diferença entre as políticas energéticas de tarifa social e o Programa Luz para Todos (LpT) num nítido reconhecimento das obrigações governamentais e estatais. No estudo de caso narram-se alguns exemplos de localidades onde o esforço da população, aliado à tecnologia e vontade política se gera energia e como isso se fez dos seus usuários os protagonistas da sua própria história. Por fim, confirma-se que os DHs são Direitos em movimento e por isso não há como estabelecer a quantidade mínima de energia sendo o DAE a base para todos os outros Direitos. / The purpose of this dissertation is to present in this 21st Century, the Energy Right (ER) as part of the Right to Development (RD), which unfolds from the Human Rights (HRs) established in the Universal Declaration signed in 1948. It covers the historical evolution of these Rights to reach the more collaborative Development model discussed in the nineties and in the beginning of this Century. It points out the commitments of the contemporaneous State and their governors as to the compliance with the Rights that are inherent to all citizens. It has also been demonstrated that the ER is a prerequirement and a mean for the exercise of other HRs such as the Right to life, to housing, to work, to water, to basic food and to digital inclusion, this latter arising from the development of the cyber-space and of global society and, hence, an undeniable duty of the government and of the State. Subsequently, it describes the normative structure of energy services that started as public, were temporarily referred to as of public and essential interest and in the end were all established as services to public, regardless of the concession system or authorization. Moreover, it also analyses the difference between the energy policies for social rate and the Program Luz para Todos (Light for All) in a clear acknowledgement of the government and state obligations. The case study depicts some examples of locations where the population effort allied to the technology and political will generates energy and how that transformed users into main characters of their own history. Finally, it is confirmed that the HR are Rights in movement and, thus, one cannot establish a minimum amount of energy inasmuch as the ER is the base for all other Rights in The XXI Century.

Magister Legum - LLM

Europeiska kommissionen pekar ut fjärrvärme som ett viktigt verktyg för att möjliggöra användandet av bränslen och värme som annars skulle gått till spillo. Primärenergianvändningen kan därigenom minskas vilket leder till minskade koldioxidutsläpp och ett mer uthålligt energisystem. För att kunna konkurrera i pris med värmepumpar och privata värmepannor behöver dock energiförlusterna i fjärrvärmesystemen hållas nere och ett ständigt energieffektiviseringsarbete behöver därför bedrivas. Förhöjda returtemperaturer från fjärrvärmesystemets kundcentraler är ett vanligt problem som indikerar onödigt höga hetvattenflöden och leder till ökade värme- och pumpförluster. I detta arbete har en beräkningsmodell konstruerats för att uppskatta hur mycket energi som sparas om satsningar görs för att sänka returtemperaturen ifrån felande kundcentraler. Modellen applicerades på Visbys fjärrvärmesystem och visade att systemets värmeförluster kunde sänkas med 10 procent och dess pumpförluster halveras om 62 procent av kundcentralerna åtgärdades. Detta resulterar i en årlig besparing på över 1 000 000 SEK för fjärrvärmebolaget vilket, tillsammans med den initiala kostanden för åtgärderna och fjärrvärmebolagets investeringskalkylsränta, ger att satsningen genererar en vinst på 4 300 000 SEK sett över tio år. Dessa kundcentralsåtgärder kommer också leda till förbättrad värmeleveransförmåga till Visbys innerstad då flödesminskningen är omfattande i den delen av nätet. / The European Commission view district heating as an important technology for facilitating the use of fuels and heat that would have otherwise gone to waste. In this way the primary energy usage can be reduced which leads to reduced carbon dioxide emissions and a more resilient energy system. To be cost competitive compared to private heat pumps and boilers the energy losses in the district heating network needs to be constantly reduced. Elevated return temperatures from district heating substations is a common problem that indicates unnecessarily high flow of water through the heat exchangers, which leads to increased heat- and pressure losses in the network. In this study a framework of calculations has been constructed to estimate how much energy can be saved if measures are taken to reduce the return temperatures of underperforming district heating substations. The calculations are applied on the district heating network of the historical Swedish city of Visby on the island of Gotland. It is shown that the distribution heat losses could be reduced by 10 percent and the pumping power could be halved if 62 percent of all substations were to be fixed. This will result in annual savings of over 1 000 000 SEK for the district heating company which, together with the initial investment in substation maintenance and the company’s discount rate for investments, results in a total profit of 4 300 000 SEK over a ten-year period. Improved heat delivery capability to the medieval city center is also expected as the mass-flow reductions in that area are considerable.

I Sverige står bostad- och servicesektorn för 40 procent av landets totala energianvändningoch utfaller således i en högre förbrukning än både transport- och industrisektorn. Entredjedel av denna energi förbrukas inom de 90 miljoner kvadratmeter ägda av offentligsektor. I dagsläget erbjuder den svenska marknaden ett antal olikaenergieffektiviseringstjänster inom offentlig sektor. Energy Performance Contracting, (EPC), ären av dem. Denna typ av energitjänstemodell bygger på att EPC-leverantören hjälperbeställaren att ta ett helhetsgrepp på fastighetsbeståndets energi- och drifteffektivisering, föratt sedan ingå i ett långsiktigt avtal om energieffektiviseringsåtgärder och garantibesparingar.De formulerade åtgärderna finansieras därmed av framtida garanterade energibesparingar,garantier som undertecknas av EPC-leverantören. Genom att ingå i ett EPC-avtal kankommuners ekonomiska risker minimeras och fastighetsbeståndet uppgraderas samtidigtsom internationella och nationella klimat- och miljömål kan nås.Energibehovet i Sverige ökar ständigt och förutspås fortsätta stiga. Europaparlamentet ochEuropeiska unionens råd beskriver i sina direktiv att takten för energieffektivbyggnadsrenovering fordras öka för att det förhöjda behovet skall kunna möta allt striktaremiljökrav. Den antropogena globala uppvärmningen resulterar i extrema väderförhållandenoch orsakar förödande konsekvenser på olika delar av vår planet. Värmeböljor, ökenbildning,flyktingströmmar och svält är några av de allvarligaste följderna. Hållbar energianvändning ärdärför oerhört viktigt för att jorden skall fortsätta att vara en plats att leva på. 90 procent avde fastigheter vi har idag kommer att finnas kvar år 2050, och energieffektivisering i sambandmed renovering är därför avgörande för minskning av den totala energianvändningen inomsektorn. Trots flertalet goda exempel på nöjda kunder och kalkyler som visar på stor potentialhar enbart en tredjedel av Sveriges kommuner beslutat om att genomföra ett EPC-projektunder de knappa 20 åren som marknaden funnits. I dagsläget är marknaden nästintillobefintlig.En empirisk studie genomfördes där 20 intervjuer hölls mot beställare, entreprenörer ochområdesexperter för att definiera barriärer som begränsar EPCs utveckling i avsikt attförstärka positionen på marknaden. Studien visade att de mest påtagliga barriärerna för EPCär avsaknad av ansvarskänsla för energieffektivisering hos kommuner följt av frånvaro avincitament att arbeta med de satta målen. Låg beställarkompetens beträffande tekniskbefogenhet och allmän kunskap om energieffektivisering och hållbar energianvändning ledertill problematik att ta till sig EPC och släppa in entreprenör vilket är nästa barriär. Utöver detäven mytspridning som gett EPC dåligt rykte. Genom att likaledes definiera incitament attgenomföra ett EPC-projekt kan en klar bild av ursprungsläget målas upp för att tillsammansmed de konstaterade barriärerna förändra positionen. Intervjuerna visade att drivkrafternaatt genomföra ett EPC projekt kunde sammanfattas till viljan att ta ett helhetsgrepp påeftersatt underhåll och öka tekniknivån samtidigt som man sparar energi. Studien ämnarsåledes åt att förstå vad som saknas för att vilja nå dessa positiva effekter. / The housing and services sector in Sweden constitutes 40 percent of the country’s totalenergy consumption, resulting in higher consumption than both the transport and industrysectors. One third of that energy consumed is utilised throughout the 90 million square meterarea owned by the public sector. There is a number of different companies that currentlyoffers energy efficiency services to the public sector, and Energy Performance Contracting(EPC) is one of them. The EPC model is based on the concept that the property owner obtainshelp from an energy service provider, in order to adopt a holistic approach towards energyefficiency measures and warranty savings. The contractor, which in this case is the EPCsupplier,provides the warranty by signing a long-term agreement on the calculated energyreduction. By committing to an EPC agreement, the municipalities' financial risks can beminimised, properties upgraded as well as contributing towards the attainment ofinternational and national climate and environmental goals.Energy demand is continuously increasing and it is predicted to continue to rise. TheEuropean Parliament and the Council of the European Union state in their directives that thepace of energy efficient property renovation must increase, in order to meet ever morestringent environmental requirements. Anthropogenic global warming has resulted inextreme weather conditions causing devastating consequences to our planet, with heatwaves, desertification, refugee flows and starvation being some of the most serious.Sustainable energy utilization is therefore critical to maintain the earth’s inhabitability. 90percent of the properties we have today will still exist in 2050. That is why energy efficiency inconnection with renovation is crucial for reducing overall energy usage within the sector.Despite many good examples of satisfied customers and economically viable implementationsshowing great potential, only a third of Sweden's municipalities have decided to implementan EPC project. Hence, there is currently no substantial market for EPC projects.To identify what is needed to strengthen EPC's position on the market, an empirical study wasconducted where 20 interviews were held with clients, entrepreneurs and industry experts.The study revealed that the most significant barriers facing the EPC market are the lack ofsense of responsibility for energy efficiency within municipalities, followed by the absence ofmeasures incentivising attainment of the set targets. A further barrier is the customer´s lackof technical competence and general knowledge regarding energy efficiency and sustainableenergy usage resulting in problems in adoption and implementation of EPC, which in turnresults in EPC getting a bad reputation. The interviews demonstrated that the driving forcesencouraging the implementation of an EPC project could be summarized as the desire to takea holistic approach to neglect maintenance and increase the technology standard, whilstsaving energy at the same time. The analysis provides a clear picture of the current state ofthe EPC market, both in terms of barriers to its development and possible incentives requiredin order to encourage implementation of EPC projects. The study aims to provide insight intowhat measures can be taken to increase the market appeal of EPCs.

Thesis (MBA (Business Management))--University of Stellenbosch, 2008. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die Suid-Afrikaanse Heropbouings Program (HOP) asook die Groei Indiensnemings- en Herverdelingsprogram(GEAR) het ‘n geweldige hoë standaard gestel vir die verskaffing van basiese dienste soos behuising en elektrifisëring vir almal. Die meer effektiewe gebruik van elektriese energie het die sosiale en politieke potensiaal om by te dra tot die sukses van GEAR ten opsigte van die geteikende lae inkomste gemeenskappe waar daar nie tans voldoende elektriese energie beskikbaar is nie. Hierdie studie dek ook die inisiatiewe ten opsigte van effektiewe elektriese energie waaroor die Suid-Afrikaanse regering in vennootskap met Eskom tans navorsing doen om te bepaal of daar enige ekonomiese waarde is, en/of die lae inkomste gemeenskappe deur die sogenoemde inisiatiewe bevoordeel kan word. Die studie sluit ook navorsing in om die bewustheid van die lae inkomste gemeenskappe ten opsigte van effektiewe elektriese energie te bepaal. Die studie kyk verder na verskeie ander voltooide studies ten opsigte van effektiewe energie in lae inkomste gemeenskappe. Alhoewel verskeie ander effektiewe energie programme wel hoë ekonomiese en omgewings voordele uit 'n sosiale oogpunt inhou, is dieselfde programme glad nie aantreklik vir die verbruikers nie. Vir hierdie feit is die regering se bemiddeling wel belangrik. Die uitslag van die studie ondersoek ook die verskillende beleidsopsies (nie in diepte nie) om die struikelblokke van effektiewe energie te oorkom, asook moontlike oplossings vir die regering om die verskille tussen wat goed is vir die gemeenskap, en wat goed is vir die elektriese industrie te oorbrug. Die studie toets ook die bewustheid van effektiewe energie onder die lae inkomste gemeenskappe en hul huidige deelname aan effektiewe energie programme. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: South Africa’s Reconstruction and Development Programme (RDP) as well as Growth Employment and Redistribution (GEAR) set ambitious goals for providing basic services to all, including housing and electrification. More efficient use of electrical energy has the potential to socially and politically support the goals of GEAR, particularly when it is targeted at low-income communities lacking adequate energy services. This study looks at electrical energy efficiency initiatives that the South African government has under taken on its own as well as in partnership with Eskom and to check if there is any economic value that the poor communities may benefit from these initiatives. The study will also check the awareness of poor communities of electrical energy efficiency. Various studies in the subject of energy efficiency in relation to the poor communities that have been done in the past will also be looked at in this study. While many energy efficiency programmes may have significant economic and environmental benefits from a social perspective, they may not be as attractive to utilities and consumers. That is why government intervention is important. As a result this study also examine (not in great depth) the policy options for overcoming the significant barriers to energy efficiency, and ways government can bridge the gap between what is good for society and what is good for the electricity industry. This study extends further on checking the awareness of energy efficiency by the poor communities and their current participation in the energy efficiency programmes.

To remain competitive in an environment with limited natural resources and ever-increasing operational costs, energy efficiency cannot be ignored. From this perspective the need for Energy Service Companies (ESCos) has arisen to address the supply constraint of national utilities and emission reductions faced by governments, to mitigate climate change. This has led to the development of two energy-efficiency finance business applications in South Africa, namely Demand-Side Management (DSM) under Eskom and the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) under the Kyoto Protocol. The technologies developed by ESCos, primarily for DSM energy efficiency projects, can be directly applied to generate Certified Emission Reduction (CERs) units, or carbon credits under the CDM business model. ESCo executives now need to decide which option will be more profitable; a once-off Rand/MW value from Eskom-DSM or an annual return on investment (ROI) from selling CERs over an extended crediting period. With a volatile CER price and bureaucratic registration procedures, it is very important that managers have all the right information at hand before making such decisions. A unique energy-efficiency investment decision model is developed that incorporates cost benefit analysis, based on the ESCos chosen risk profile. All attributes to the model of both DSM and CDM are defined, discussed and quantified into a decision analysis framework that would minimize risk and maximize profit. These attributes include life cycle analysis, technology transfer, cash flow, future CER prices, and associated project and political risks. The literature and background information that builds up to the development of this decision model serves as a complete handbook with guidelines to the South African energy services industry and investors. This study proposes a new energy-efficiency methodology under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) that would increase the amount of CDM energy efficiency projects in South Africa and internationally. The methodology is designed to improve control system efficiency of any large electricity consumer instead of being equipment-specific. This implies that developers can use the same methodology regardless of whether the end-users are clear water pumping systems, compressed air systems, fans etc. This will reduce the cost of registering new methodologies with the UNFCCC and make CDM a more lucrative option to ESCos and other developers. This new energy-efficiency methodology and finance decision model was used in a case study to test its validity and accuracy. Two supporting technologies, REMS-CARBON and OSIMS, were developed in conjunction with HVAC International and tested at the clear water pumping system of Kopanang gold mine. The results from the case study demonstrated that this model is an acceptable tool in ensuring that ESCos gain maximum benefit from energy efficiency finance initiatives. Due to the experience gained with the modalities, procedures and pitfalls of DSM and CDM, further suggestions are made for new protocols to follow the Kyoto Protocol post-2012. South Africa and specifically ESCos could be very well positioned in a global “cap-andtrade” future carbon market. / PhD (Mechanical Engineering), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2009

To remain competitive in an environment with limited natural resources and ever-increasing operational costs, energy efficiency cannot be ignored. From this perspective the need for Energy Service Companies (ESCos) has arisen to address the supply constraint of national utilities and emission reductions faced by governments, to mitigate climate change. This has led to the development of two energy-efficiency finance business applications in South Africa, namely Demand-Side Management (DSM) under Eskom and the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) under the Kyoto Protocol. The technologies developed by ESCos, primarily for DSM energy efficiency projects, can be directly applied to generate Certified Emission Reduction (CERs) units, or carbon credits under the CDM business model. ESCo executives now need to decide which option will be more profitable; a once-off Rand/MW value from Eskom-DSM or an annual return on investment (ROI) from selling CERs over an extended crediting period. With a volatile CER price and bureaucratic registration procedures, it is very important that managers have all the right information at hand before making such decisions. A unique energy-efficiency investment decision model is developed that incorporates cost benefit analysis, based on the ESCos chosen risk profile. All attributes to the model of both DSM and CDM are defined, discussed and quantified into a decision analysis framework that would minimize risk and maximize profit. These attributes include life cycle analysis, technology transfer, cash flow, future CER prices, and associated project and political risks. The literature and background information that builds up to the development of this decision model serves as a complete handbook with guidelines to the South African energy services industry and investors. This study proposes a new energy-efficiency methodology under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) that would increase the amount of CDM energy efficiency projects in South Africa and internationally. The methodology is designed to improve control system efficiency of any large electricity consumer instead of being equipment-specific. This implies that developers can use the same methodology regardless of whether the end-users are clear water pumping systems, compressed air systems, fans etc. This will reduce the cost of registering new methodologies with the UNFCCC and make CDM a more lucrative option to ESCos and other developers. This new energy-efficiency methodology and finance decision model was used in a case study to test its validity and accuracy. Two supporting technologies, REMS-CARBON and OSIMS, were developed in conjunction with HVAC International and tested at the clear water pumping system of Kopanang gold mine. The results from the case study demonstrated that this model is an acceptable tool in ensuring that ESCos gain maximum benefit from energy efficiency finance initiatives. Due to the experience gained with the modalities, procedures and pitfalls of DSM and CDM, further suggestions are made for new protocols to follow the Kyoto Protocol post-2012. South Africa and specifically ESCos could be very well positioned in a global “cap-andtrade” future carbon market. / PhD (Mechanical Engineering), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2009

Cette thèse explore deux questions autour de la précarité énergétique en France. Quel(s) indicateur(s) adopter pour quantifier la précarité énergétique et capturer ses multiples dimensions? Dans quelle mesure la fiscalité écologique pourrait-elle amplifier le phénomène ou, au contraire, constituer une opportunité de le combattre?Un premier chapitre introduit les enjeux sociaux et économiques de la précarité énergétique en France, ainsi que les défis que ce phénomène soulève pour les acteurs publics dans le cadre de la transition écologique (chapitre 1). Puis la thèse s'organise en deux grandes parties. La première partie concerne la quantification de la précarité énergétique. Je commence par rappeler les débats actuels autour de la mesure de la précarité énergétique et par souligner les limites des approches existantes (chapitre 2). Puis, j’explore la dimension transport du phénomène et propose un indice composite qui cible les différents facteurs qui contraignent la mobilité des ménages et leurs possibilités d’adaptation. Cet indice identifie trois niveaux d’exposition à une hausse des prix des carburants : précarité, vulnérabilité et dépendance (chapitre 3). Je poursuis ensuite la réflexion sur la construction d’un indice multidimensionnel de précarité énergétique et je cherche à mettre à jour ses implications politiques. Deux indices sont élaborés : un pour le logement et un pour le transport. Je montre comment ces nouveaux indices, parce qu’ils s’intéressent au cumul des facteurs qui désavantagent les ménages en matière d’énergie, permettent de limiter les erreurs d’inclusion et d’exclusion reprochées aux approches classiques. Une application dans le contexte français apporte de nouvelles perspectives sur le ciblage des réponses politiques et souligne la nécessité de remédier aux dimensions non monétaires de la précarité énergétique (chapitre 4).La seconde partie concerne les impacts distributifs de la fiscalité carbone. A partir d'une revue de la littérature, je précise les enjeux méthodologiques et les choix de modélisation pour rendre compte de manière satisfaisante de la distribution des impacts (chapitre 5). Je développe ensuite un modèle de microsimulation spécialement conçu pour évaluer l’impact sur les ménages de la taxe carbone française. Ce modèle simule, pour un échantillon représentatif de la population française, les taxes prélevées sur leur consommation d’énergie dans le logement et le transport. Je l’utilise pour quantifier l’impact de la taxe carbone sur les inégalités et la précarité énergétique. Enfin, j’explore ensuite différents scénarios de redistribution aux ménages avec pour objectif de corriger les iniquités engendrées - en particulier compenser la régressivité de la taxe carbone et combattre la précarité énergétique. J’évalue le coût de ces mesures au regard des recettes de la taxe carbone (chapitre 6). / This thesis explores two questions about fuel poverty in France: What indicator(s) should be adopted to quantify fuel poverty and capture its multiple dimensions? To what extent does ecological taxation amplify the phenomenon or, on the contrary, provides an opportunity to fight it?A first chapter introduces the social and economic issues of fuel poverty in France, as well as the challenges this phenomenon raises for public actors in the context of an ecological transition (chapter 1). Then the thesis is divided into two main parts.The first part deals with the measurement of fuel poverty. I start by highlighting the current debates on the measurement of fuel poverty and the limitations of existing approaches (chapter 2). Next, I explore the transport dimension of fuel poverty and I propose a composite index of the various factors that constrain household mobility and their possibilities to adapt to higher fuel prices. This index identifies three levels of exposure to rising fuel prices: precariousness, vulnerability and dependence (chapter 3). I then continue studying the design of a multidimensional index of energy poverty and I seek to uncover its political implications. Two indices are developed: one for housing and one for transport. I show how these new indices, through addressing the cumulative factors that disadvantage households in terms of energy, can help limit the inclusion and exclusion errorsfrom which conventional approaches suffer. Quantification in the French context brings new insights on the targeting of policy responses and emphasizes the need to address the non-monetary dimensions of fuel poverty (chapter 4). The second part studies the distributive impacts of carbon taxation. Based on a review of literature, I discuss the methodological issues and the modelling choices to represent the distribution of impacts (chapter 5). I then develop a microsimulation model to assess the impact of the French carbon tax on households. This model simulates, for a representative sample of the French population, the taxes levied on their energy consumption in housing and transport. I use this model to quantify the impact of the carbon tax on inequality and fuel poverty. Finally, I explore different scenarios of redistribution of carbon tax revenues to households, with the objective to correct the found inequities - in particular, to compensate for the regressivity of the carbon tax and to reduce fuel poverty. I evaluate the cost of these measures in respect to the amount of carbon tax revenues (chapter 6).