This thesis examines the concept of environmental security in regards to its historical development and current classification in the security studies discourse. It analyzes its relationship to the concept of energy security and explains some other relevant concepts used in this study. It then carefully chooses four determinants of environmental security which are most relevant for assessing the energy mix of the Czech Republic. The evaluation of the current energy mix is then compared to the state and composition of the country's energy mix in 2040 as outlined in the New State Energy Concept (NSEC) of 2013. Reflecting on the changes of the energy mix presented in NSEC reveals the actual impact of the future version of the energy mix on the environmental security in the Czech Republic. The thesis further identifies other important factors to consider when making strategic decisions about the composition of the energy mix and energy policy in general. To conclude, a reflection on the implications of this study both on the concept of environmental security and the Czech energy decision-making is offered.

Europe suffers from a new form of dependence. Not only does it need to import natural gas, crude oil, and nuclear fuel, but it also cannot meet its own demand for crude oil products such as the jet fuel and the diesel fuel, most of which comes from Russia. Furthermore, Russian state owned and private companies have been steadily extending their influence in the refining sector of the European Union. They possess a complete control over the refining sector of Bulgaria, and have a significant position in Romania, the Netherlands, Belgium, Germany and Italy. The leverage of Russian companies in European oil refining sector is set to rise, because Europe will inevitably experience further closures of refineries in the future. The overall level of risks associated with Russian control of European refineries is significant, and policy makers should see it in context with other tools of Moscow's influence such as the dependence on natural gas or the anti-EU and the anti-US propaganda, disinformation campaigns and financial support for the extremist parties.

Ensuring affordable and clean energy is vital for sustainable development. The vulnerability of the European energy system has highlighted the need for resilient solutions. Renewable Energy Communities (RECs), essentially neighbors producing and sharing electricity, have emerged as promising components of a resilient energy system. Policymakers recognize the significance of grassroots initiatives like RECs in shaping the future energy landscape. However, the establishment of RECs is still relatively new, particularly in Sweden, generating increased interest within the academic community. Existing research primarily focuses on established RECs, necessitating a deeper understanding of their formation. To bridge this research gap, we conducted an exploratory and qualitative study to investigate homeowners’ motives and barriers for participating in RECs, as well as their expectations for external support. We developed an analytical framework based on the conceptualization of RECs as a distinct form of Community Enterprises. This framework enabled us to explore homeowners’ perspectives on the motivations and challenges associated with these entities. We collected primary data through 10 semi-structured interviews with homeowners residing in a neighborhood of a medium-sized town in southern Sweden. Our findings reveal that homeowners are primarily motivated by the economic impact of participating in RECs. However, they also perceive several barriers that hinder their involvement. These challenges stem from the absence of community determinants and characteristics, as well entrepreneurial spirit and leadership that promote the emergence of RECs. Homeowners generally hold a positive attitude towards RECs but express a preference for an intermediary who can initiate and facilitate their engagement. Intermediaries have the potential to establish RECs, as defined by EU law, by compensating for the lack of social capital and trust through formal control structures, while leveraging external expertise as champions and organizers. This concept challenges the notion of RECs as a specific type of Community Enterprises.

The increasing energy demand and its impact on the climate around the world has evoked several sectors´ efforts in order to develop and implement sustainable technologies. Political incentives and companies go toward great changes when it comes to reduction of energy sources from fossil-origins in order to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and achievement of energy security. The military organisation is strongly dependent on fossil-based energy in several units. So far, alternative energy carriers to fossil energy sources have been an uncertain option when it comes to complying with military operational requirements. It is important that new technologies do not endanger military capabilities.  However, when the market goes toward more sustainable developments for alternative energy carriers, the military sector has to follow the development in order to utilize the available assortment and to secure supply chains. The energy demand within defence is expected to increase with respect to advanced equipment and communication technologies etc. This is related to all units within the defence. This thesis has been executed on a request by the Swedish Defence Materiel Administration in order to identify alternative energy carriers for a light duty vehicle.The thesis emphasizes how the Swedish Defence Materiel Administration can consider alternative energy carriers for light duty vehicles in order to achieve energy security without endangering military capabilities from a strategic perspective. The aim is to contribute to awareness of the market direction for sustainable technologies of alternative energy carriers in order to address knowledge gaps and facilitate the Swedish Defence Materiel Administration’s decisions about future research areas. The methods for the study included both literature reviews from previous research but also interviews with persons in both the private and public sectors. Based on previous research and the interviews, the results landed on four different energy carriers: biomethane, hydrogenated vegetable oils, hydrogen and Lithium-ion batteries. These energy carriers have been studied in relation to the following mechanisms: production, storage and infrastructure needed for energy supply. The thesis found that HVO and synthetic fuels have a limited impact on military organization compared to biomethane, hydrogen and batteries. However, large-scale production of these technologies is limited by the amount of waste available. From an energy security perspective Sweden has potential to exploit both the forest and renewable electricity from wind and solar energy. However, for an establishment there is a need for a closer interplay between the private and the public sector, where political incentives are vital for development. / Det ökande behovet av energi och dess påverkan på klimatet runt om i världen har lett till initiativtagande hos flera sektorer för att implementera och utveckla nya hållbara teknologier. Politiska incitament och företag går mot en stor förändring i samband med att minska användandet av energikällor från fossilt ursprung. Detta för att minimera utsläpp av växthusgaser och uppnå energisäkerhet. Militära organisationer är starkt beroende av fossilbaserade energi i flera förband. Hittills har alternativa energibärare varit ett osäkert alternativ för att uppfylla de militära operativa kraven där det är av stor betydelse att nya teknologier inte äventyrar militär förmåga. När marknaden går mot mer hållbara alternativ måste militära organisationer följa utvecklingen för att utnyttja det tillgängliga sortimentet och säkra leveranskedjorna. Det militära energibehovet förväntas öka i samband med implementering av avancerad teknik. Denna avhandling belyser hur Försvarets Material Verk kan överväga olika alternativa energibärare för lätta fordon för att uppnå energisäkerhet från ett strategiskt perspektiv. Syftet är att bidra till medvetenhet om marknadens riktningar för hållbara teknologier av alternativa energibärare för att identifiera kunskapsluckor och underlätta framtida beslut om vidare forskningsområden. Metoden för studien omfattar litteraturstudie från tidigare forskning och intervjuer med aktörer från både privata och offentliga sektorn. Baserat på tidigare forskning och intervjuer landade resultatet på fyra olika energibärare: biometan, hydrerade vegetabiliska oljor, väte och litium-jon batterier. Dessa energibärare har studerats utifrån följande mekanismer: produktion, lagring och infrastruktur vilket är nödvändigt för energiförsörjning av lätta mark fordon. Hydrerade vegetabiliska oljor och andra syntetiska energibärare har en begränsad påverkan på den militära organisationen jämfört med biometan, väte och batterier. Storskalig produktion av denna energibärare begränsas dock av tillgängligt avfall. Från ett energisäkerhetsperspektiv har Sverige som nation möjlighet att utnyttja råvaror från skog och elproduktion från förnybara källor. För en etablering behövs dock ett samspel mellan privata och offentliga sektorn där politiska incitament är avgörande för utvecklingen.

This thesis is about EU energy security in relation to Russia and its proposed Nord Stream 2 project. In this thesis the Copenhagen School theory on securitisation is applied with the help of a combination of content analysis and discourse analysis as methods, which will together with the theory become the framework of this study. While the focal point will fall on EU’s Parliament and how the project Nord Stream 2 is securitised within this EU structure, where the project itself will serve as an exhibitory example of the energy security relationship between EU and Russia. The main findings that are made in this thesis are that the securitising actors in the debate are the countries not the political parties and that Russia, not Nord Stream 2 is the true object of securitisation. In addition to that it was established that there is little unity amongst the EU member states, which is supported by the finding in previous academic studies that have been conducted within the field.

能源問題是當今世界經濟發展中最引人關注的一個重大問題，能源問題的核心是解決能源供求穩定和安全問題，如何保障一個國家的能源安全是今后長時期內各國能源外交工作的重點。在全球化過程中，各國的能源安全問題仍將是一個相互依存、相互促進的體系，沒有一個國家能夠脫離其他國家和地區的能源安全而保証自身的安全，加強雙邊和多邊的能源對話與合作將是開展能源外交的重要議題。俄羅斯是世界能源大國，它的能源戰略對未來國際能源安全和中俄能源合作將具有重要影響。 俄羅斯作為世界能源大國，在國際能源領域具有獨特地位。它使俄羅斯在諸多國際問題上擁有了更多的發言權，特別是在后蘇聯空間和東北亞地區。同時，地緣政治問題是各國的政治和經濟實力生存和發展空間的問題。能源地緣政治的核心問題是各國掌控政治經濟發展所需要的能源資源的能力。世界各國競相發展經濟，各國加強對能源的爭奪，世界能源價格上漲，世界能源市場格局的變動，這些因素極大地提高了俄羅斯的能源國際影響力，促進了俄羅斯經濟增長的能源化趨向。中俄近年來政治關系穩固發展，加之地理位置相鄰，資源互補，按理說雙方的能源合作應卓有成效，但現實表明，雙方進展緩慢，結果不能讓人滿意。本文就是從中國近年來的能源安全局勢、俄羅斯的能源外交、整個東北亞的能源需求困境及近年來世界能源局勢的發展等中俄能源合作的背景因素出發，論述了中俄能源合作的現狀與動力因素接著,即而深入分析了影響中俄能源合作的俄國內因素，外部影響因素以及中國自身的問題。 最后，基於對雙方能源合作的有利條件與不利條件的分析，論文從兩國戰 略關系的高度，雙方民間交往的基礎，兩國能能源外交及構建地區能源合作機制通的可能性等因素出發，初步提出中國為中俄能源合作而採取的對策思路。 筆者認為隻有克服雙邊合作的不利因素，發揮雙方的有利條件，兩國的能源合作就定能邁向一個新的台階。 關鍵詞 : 能源外交, 俄羅斯能源戰略, 俄中能源合作, 能源安全. / Since 1993, China has become an importer of oil; the oil consumption has been growing.At the same time, China couldn’t increase the oil production, as the result, the lack of oil supplying has continuously increased. If we analyze from the point of international resource consumption, China comes to be the key country between those, who will struggle for the energy resources in the future. Since 1993, energy factor has been implemented to the consideration in the Chinese diplomacy. China has started to pay more and more attention to the energy factor while dealing with its international affairs. In 21 century, the oil price has been increasingly rising, that has become a serious danger for Chinese economy. The sudden lack of energy resources will be the great threat for fast developing Chinese economy. Also, been increasing its military power, China needs to create strategic oil stocks in order to move effectively its military forces. If we consider from strategic point of view, China is in the center of Asia, with Pacific Ocean on its East Coast, bordering with Pakistan on the South, China has very favorable geographical strategic advantages. China needs to use its strategic position for early planning strategy in its “non-blood war” for oil resources. Otherwise, China will face containment from the other countries. The purpose of this study is thus to investigate the following issues based upon the date for the influence of energy factor on Chinese foreign policy and intentions during the period of 1993-2003: 1.Understanding the trends for the future growth of energy demand in China. 2.Investigating what kind of measures can be applying by Chinese government in the face of these trends. 3. Figuring out how big the role of energy factor in the Chinese foreign policy implementation. Keywords: Chinese foreign policy, oil, energy security.

In 2003, China surpassed Japan to become the world’s second largest oil consumer (behind the United States), and the third largest oil importer (behind the United States and Japan). China’s huge demand for oil and its dependence on oil imports have forced the Chinese government continuously to adopt the energy expansion strategy in order to secure the country’s oil supply. The energy supply and reserves in Southeast Asian region are not the critical core area to supply China’s energy demand, but it is located in the periphery of China where it controls the transportation link of the Strait of Malacca, directly to hold a strategic point of the sea lane of communication for transporting oil to China. Under this scenario, China is proactively to carry out its energy diplomacy with ASEAN’s nations and to ensure completely an overall strategic arrangement in Southeast Asia so as to assure China’s oil security. In this thesis, it is mainly to probe into the following questions: the inquiring into China’s oil security strategy? Why China and how to readjust its relations with the nations in Southeast Asia? What is the driving factor? After China has become the oil importer, China has to face what kinds of challenges in oil transportation security? What is its intention of resolution projection? In terms of geographic shares, about 60% of the China’s oil import comes from the Middle East, passing through the highly insecure the Strait of Malacca in Southeast Asia that has taken the advantages to influence China’s oil sea transportation routes. Those issues will lay stress on the key points of breaking through the “Malacca Dilemma,” meet the China’s oil demand, sustain economic development, even consolidate the legitimacy of the ruling Chinese Communist Party, and conform to the national interests. / In 2003, China surpassed Japan to become the world’s second largest oil consumer (behind the United States), and the third largest oil importer (behind the United States and Japan). China’s huge demand for oil and its dependence on oil imports have forced the Chinese government continuously to adopt the energy expansion strategy in order to secure the country’s oil supply. The energy supply and reserves in Southeast Asian region are not the critical core area to supply China’s energy demand, but it is located in the periphery of China where it controls the transportation link of the Strait of Malacca, directly to hold a strategic point of the sea lane of communication for transporting oil to China. Under this scenario, China is proactively to carry out its energy diplomacy with ASEAN’s nations and to ensure completely an overall strategic arrangement in Southeast Asia so as to assure China’s oil security. In this thesis, it is mainly to probe into the following questions: the inquiring into China’s oil security strategy? Why China and how to readjust its relations with the nations in Southeast Asia? What is the driving factor? After China has become the oil importer, China has to face what kinds of challenges in oil transportation security? What is its intention of resolution projection? In terms of geographic shares, about 60% of the China’s oil import comes from the Middle East, passing through the highly insecure the Strait of Malacca in Southeast Asia that has taken the advantages to influence China’s oil sea transportation routes. Those issues will lay stress on the key points of breaking through the “Malacca Dilemma,” meet the China’s oil demand, sustain economic development, even consolidate the legitimacy of the ruling Chinese Communist Party, and conform to the national interests.

This thesis undertakes three separate lifecycle analyses to determine the emissions and fossil energy demand required to process algae biomass into renewable fuel and animal feed. A complete well-to-wheel fuel-cycle analysis is conducted for the production of biodiesel and jet biofuel from algae biomass. The environmental impacts of algae-based fuels for the road transportation and aviation industry are benchmarked against analogue conventional fossil fuels. This thesis demonstrates that algae biofuel production can only realize its inherent environmental advantage of reduced GHG emissions, once every step of the production chain is fully optimized and decarbonized. This includes smart co-product utilization, offsetting fertilizers through wastewater recycling, reusing exhaust gases as additional CO2 source and using decarbonized electricity, heat and indirect energy. The definition of a Catalyst Sensitivity Index (CSI) demonstrates how catalytic efficiency increases can impact the fossil energy consumption and the greenhouse gas emissions balance of catalyst-dependent processes. The CSI will allow the industry to highlight 'best practice catalysts' and draw conclusions for what efficiency gains one could anticipate with higher performance catalysts. For countries where a decarbonized electricity and heat grid is not available to guarantee low-carbon algae fuel production and the looming resource scarcity around marine feed production has become more pressing, the alternative use of algae for aquafeed production is recommended. This thesis analyses major routes towards the future cost-competitive production of microbial biomass as sustainable fish meal and oil source to meet a global demand for depleting fish feed supplies. A comprehensive economic cost analysis and lifecycle assessment demonstrates the feasibility of replacing global fish meal and fish oil supplies with low-carbon and affordable algae feed by the year 2030. This research reveals how algae feed production has the potential to transform a pressing resource tipping point into a turning point.

Ce mémoire propose une analyse de l’expansion internationale de la China National Petroleum Corporation (CNPC) et des impacts de cette expansion sur la sécurité énergétique de la Chine. Dans le cadre de cette recherche, l’approvisionnement énergétique d’un pays est jugé sécuritaire lorsqu’une quantité suffisante de ressources nécessaires pour combler sa demande en énergie sont présentes, disponibles et accessibles et que son approvisionnement en services énergétiques demeure fiable et abordable. La recherche comporte quatre volets. Le premier volet porte sur les étapes de la restructuration de l’industrie pétrolière chinoise depuis 1949. Celle-ci est analysée au travers des changements dans les modes de gestion des compagnies pétrolières nationales et dans leurs relations avec le gouvernement chinois. Le deuxième volet traite de la diversification et des nouvelles spécialisations de CNPC. Ces aspects sont étudiés dans le cadre d’une analyse du pourcentage de ses actifs dans chaque segment industriel (aval, intermédiaire et amont) obtenus grâce à ses rapports annuels. Le troisième volet aborde la répartition géographique des activités de la compagnie que l’on étudie à l’aide d’une analyse approfondie de près de 150 investissements, acquisitions et contrats réalisés à l’étranger entre 1992 et 2014. Le quatrième volet aborde les impacts des investissements à l’étranger de la compagnie sur la sécurité énergétique de la Chine. Ces impacts sont mesurés par l’entremise d’une analyse des flux pétroliers internationaux vers la Chine que l’on compare à la production de CNPC par pays. Ce mémoire permet de déterminer que l’expansion internationale de CNPC sert d’abord et avant tout les intérêts économiques de la compagnie. Ce sont surtout ses investissements dans la construction d’infrastructures de transport (oléoducs, gazoducs ainsi que les usines et terminaux de liquéfaction de gaz naturel liquéfié) qui apportent des bénéfices directs à la sécurité énergétique de la Chine. La contribution des investissements dans les autres secteurs est beaucoup moins systématique et dépend largement de la période au cours de laquelle ils ont été effectués. / This thesis proposes an analysis of the international expansion of China National Petroleum Corporation (CNPC) and of the impacts of this expansion on China’s energy security. In this research, a country’s energy supply is considered secure when sufficient resources needed to meet its energy demands are present, available and accessible while the supply of energy services remains affordable and reliable. The analysis is done in four sections. The first section focuses on the various stages of the restructuring of the Chinese oil industry since 1949. This subject is studied through an analysis of both the changes in the management methods of the Chinese national oil companies and the evolution of their relationship with the Chinese government. The second section deals with the diversification and the evolution of CNPC’s specializations. These are studied through an analysis of the percentage of the company’s assets in each sector of the oil industry (downstream, midstream, and upstream), which are obtained through its annual reports. The third section looks at the geographical distribution of the company’s overseas operations. This is done through an in-depth analysis of nearly 150 investments, acquisitions, and contracts made abroad by CNPC between 1992 and 2014. Finally, the fourth section focuses on the impacts of the overseas investments of the company on China’s energy security. These impacts are examined by measuring CNPC’s overseas production and comparing the total per country to the oil and gas flows going from these countries to China. This thesis allows us to determine that by engaging in international activities, CNPC aims above all to satisfy its economic interests. It is mostly the investments it made for the construction of transportation infrastructure (oil and gas pipelines or liquefied natural gas terminals) that directly benefits to China’s energy security. The company’s investments in other sectors do sometimes bring some benefits to the country’s energy security, but their contribution is much less systematic and depends largely on the period during which they were made.

The Thesis aims to analyze the possible shale gas development in the EU in context with raising problem of energy security. Based on the experience of shale revolution in the USA and econometric modelling using the method of Ordinary Least Squares with Fixed Effects to test the dependence of price on shale gas production, the transfer of US model to the EU is discussed. The results show that shale production affects the price negatively and that US model is successful due to multiple reasons, primarily presence of experienced companies, geological structure and strong regulation rules. The Thesis shows the unsuitability of the US model for the EU market. After the first enthusiasm for shale plays research in late 2000s the multiple barriers for drilling have risen up; the most significant are the environmental worries; both on governmental and public levels. US companies have lost interest in the EU and moved to other parts of the world. The shale gas development is not able to affect the energy security of the EU on European, international level.