The studies investigated the impact of predictive visual information about the pitch and location of a forthcoming sound on the sound processing. In Symbol-to-Sound matching paradigms, symbols induced predictions of particular sounds. The brain’s error signals (IR and N2b components of the event-related potential) were measured in response to occasional violations of the prediction, i.e. when a sound was incongruent to the corresponding symbol. IR and N2b index the detection of prediction violations at different levels, IR at a sensory and N2b at a cognitive level. Participants evaluated the congruency between prediction and actual sound by button press. When the prediction referred to only the pitch or only the location feature (Exp. 1), the violation of each feature elicited IR and N2b. The IRs to pitch and location violations revealed differences in the in time course and topography, suggesting that they were generated in feature-specific sensory areas. When the prediction referred to both features concurrently (Exp. 2), that is, the symbol predicted the sound´s pitch and location, either one or both predictions were violated. Unexpectedly, no significant effects in the IR range were obtained. However, N2b was elicited in response to all violations. N2b in response to concurrent violations of pitch and location had a shorter latency. We conclude that associative predictions can be established by arbitrary rule-based symbols and for different sound features, and that concurrent violations are processed in parallel. In complex situations as in Exp. 2, capacity limitations appear to affect processing in a hierarchical manner. While predictions were presumably not reliably established at sensory levels (absence of IR), they were established at more cognitive levels, where sounds are represented categorially (presence of N2b).

Die Reaktionsauswahl und die visuelle Aufmerksamkeit sind kapazitätslimitiert. In Doppelaufgaben des Paradigmas der Psychologischen Refraktärperiode (PRP) wird angenommen, dass die Reaktionsauswahlstufen in Aufgabe 1 und Aufgabe 2 sequentiell verarbeitet werden. Für Konjunktionssuchaufgaben wird angenommen, dass die visuelle Aufmerksamkeit Objekte selektiert und Objektmerkmale zusammen bindet, was zu einem seriellen Suchprozess führt. In der vorliegenden Dissertation wurde untersucht, ob die visuelle Aufmerksamkeit (d.h. Merkmalsbindung) demselben zentralen Verarbeitungsengpass wie die Reaktionsauswahl in Doppelaufgaben unterliegt. Sequentielle Verarbeitung von Reaktionsauswahl und visueller Aufmerksamkeit würde Evidenz dafür zeigen, dass beide Prozesse derselben Kapazitätslimitation unterliegen, während parallele Verarbeitung Evidenz dafür zeigen würde, dass beide Prozesse unterschiedlichen Kapazitätslimitationen unterliegen. Um diese Frage zu untersuchen, wurden Reaktionszeitmaße (locus-of-slack Methode), Targetdetektionsmaße (d’) und Ereigniskorrelierte Potentiale (EKPs; N2pc (N2 posterior contralateral)) gemessen. Schwerpunkt aller Analysen war der visuelle Aufmerksamkeitsprozess in einer Konjunktionssuche, die als Aufgabe 2 in Doppelaufgaben implementiert wurde. Aufgabe 1 war stets eine Wahlunterscheidungsaufgabe. Die Verhaltens- und elektrophysiologischen Ergebnisse zeigten, dass die Reaktionsauswahl in Aufgabe 1 und die visuelle Aufmerksamkeit (d.h. Merkmalsbindung) in Aufgabe 2 parallel verarbeitet wurden unabhängig von der Stimulusmodalität in Aufgabe 1, der Schwierigkeit der Reaktionsauswahl in Aufgabe 1 und der Darbietungsform des Stimulusdisplays in Aufgabe 2. Außerdem wurde eine Methode entwickelt, um die Anzahl der Objekte zu berechnen, die parallel zur Reaktionsauswahl verarbeitet wurden. Die Berechnungen stützten die Konklusion, dass die Reaktionsauswahl und die visuelle Aufmerksamkeit unterschiedlichen Kapazitätslimitationen unterliegen. / Response selection and visual attention are limited in capacity. Concerning dual-tasks of the Psychological Refractory Period (PRP) paradigm, it is assumed that response selection of Task 1 and Task 2 are processed sequentially. On the other hand, concerning conjunction search, it is assumed that visual attention selects the items and binds the item features resulting in a serial search process. In the present dissertation I investigated whether visual attention (i.e., feature binding) is subject to the same bottleneck mechanism as response selection in dual-tasks. Sequential processing of response selection and visual attention would provide evidence that both processes rely on a common capacity limitation, whereas concurrent processing would provide evidence that they rely on distinct capacity limitations. Reaction time (RT) measures based on the locus-of-slack method, target detectability measures based on d’, and the event-related potential (ERP) technique to measure the N2pc (N2 posterior contralateral) were combined to investigate this question. Analyses focused on visual attention deployment in a conjunction search task, which was implemented as Task 2 in dual-task situations. Task 1 was a choice discrimination task. Both tasks were presented at variable temporal overlap (Stimulus Onset Asynchrony, SOA). The behavioral and N2pc results showed that response selection in Task 1 and visual attention (i.e., feature binding) in Task 2 operated concurrently irrespective of the stimulus modality in Task 1, the response selection difficulty in Task 1 and the type of presentation of the search display in Task 2. Based on a method that was developed in the present dissertation, it was possible to calculate how many items of the search display were processed in parallel to response selection. The results supported the conclusion that response selection and visual attention rely on distinct capacity limitations.

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Predictive coding theorizes the capacity of neural structures to form predictions about forthcoming sensory events based on previous sensory input. This concept increasingly gains attention within experimental psychology and cognitive neuroscience. In auditory research, predictive coding has become a useful model that elegantly explains different aspects of auditory sensory processing and auditory perception. Many of these aspects are backed up by experimental evidence. However, certain fundamental features of predictive auditory processing have not been addressed so far by experimental investigations, like correlates of neural predictions that show up before the onset of an expected event. Four experiments were designed to investigate the proposed mechanism under more realistic conditions as compared to previous studies by manipulating different aspects of predictive (un)certainty, thereby examining the ecological validity of predictive processing in audition. Moreover, predictive certainty was manipulated gradually across five conditions from unpredictable to fully predictable in linearly increasing steps which drastically decreases the risk of discovering incidental findings. The results obtained from the conducted experiments partly confirm the results from previous studies by demonstrating effects of predictive certainty on ERPs in response to omissions of potentially predictable stimuli. Furthermore, results partly suggest that the auditory system actively engages in stimulus predictions in a literal sense as evidenced by gradual modulations of pre-stimulus ERPs associated with different degrees of predictive certainty. However, the current results remain inconsistent because the observed effects were relatively small and could not consistently be replicated in all follow-up experiments. The observed effects could be regained after accumulating the data across all experiments in order to increase statistical power. However, certain questions remain unanswered regarding a valid interpretation of the results in terms of predictive coding. Based on the current state of results, recommendations for future investigations are provided at the end of the current thesis in order to improve certain methodological aspects of investigating predictive coding in audition, including considerations on the design of experiments, possible suitable measures to investigate predictive coding in audition, recommendations for data acquisition and data analysis as well as recommendations for publication of results.

Predictive coding theorizes the capacity of neural structures to form predictions about forthcoming sensory events based on previous sensory input. This concept increasingly gains attention within experimental psychology and cognitive neuroscience. In auditory research, predictive coding has become a useful model that elegantly explains different aspects of auditory sensory processing and auditory perception. Many of these aspects are backed up by experimental evidence. However, certain fundamental features of predictive auditory processing have not been addressed so far by experimental investigations, like correlates of neural predictions that show up before the onset of an expected event. Four experiments were designed to investigate the proposed mechanism under more realistic conditions as compared to previous studies by manipulating different aspects of predictive (un)certainty, thereby examining the ecological validity of predictive processing in audition. Moreover, predictive certainty was manipulated gradually across five conditions from unpredictable to fully predictable in linearly increasing steps which drastically decreases the risk of discovering incidental findings. The results obtained from the conducted experiments partly confirm the results from previous studies by demonstrating effects of predictive certainty on ERPs in response to omissions of potentially predictable stimuli. Furthermore, results partly suggest that the auditory system actively engages in stimulus predictions in a literal sense as evidenced by gradual modulations of pre-stimulus ERPs associated with different degrees of predictive certainty. However, the current results remain inconsistent because the observed effects were relatively small and could not consistently be replicated in all follow-up experiments. The observed effects could be regained after accumulating the data across all experiments in order to increase statistical power. However, certain questions remain unanswered regarding a valid interpretation of the results in terms of predictive coding. Based on the current state of results, recommendations for future investigations are provided at the end of the current thesis in order to improve certain methodological aspects of investigating predictive coding in audition, including considerations on the design of experiments, possible suitable measures to investigate predictive coding in audition, recommendations for data acquisition and data analysis as well as recommendations for publication of results.:1. Introduction ... 5 1.1 An introduction to predictive coding theory ... 9 1.2 Predictive coding in audition ... 11 1.3 Electrophysiological correlates of predictive auditory processing ... 14 1.4 Limitations of previous research and aims of the thesis ... 21 2. Traditional correlates of auditory prediction ... 24 2.1 Experiment 1: Reliability of auditory predictions ... 25 2.2 Experiment 2: Accuracy of auditory predictions ... 39 3. Pre-stimulus correlates of auditory prediction ...47 3.1 Pre-stimulus effects in Experiment 1 and 2 ... 48 3.2 Experiment 3: Temporal dynamics of auditory prediction ... 56 3.3 Experiment 4: The influence of omissions on stimulus processing ... 64 4 Results across experiments ... 74 4.1 Methods ... 76 4.2 Results ... 80 4.3 Discussion ... 82 5. General Discussion ... 87 5.1 Implications for current research ... 89 5.2 Recommendations for future investigations ... 93 5.3 Future prospects ... 101 5.4 Conclusion ... 104 References ...106 Appendix ... 116

Personen mit Morbus Parkinson (MP) erleben Herausforderungen beim Erinnern, Planen und Ausführen täglicher Abläufe, die über motorische Symptome hinausgehen. Störungen in der Verarbeitung von Alltagsereignissen könnten eine zentrale Rolle spielen, jedoch sind potentielle Defizite und neuronale Mechanismen unzureichend untersucht. In Studie 1 untersuchten wir das Segmentierungsverhalten während der Betrachtung von naturalistischen Filmen und dessen Beziehung zum Ereignisgedächtnis. Die Ergebnisse zeigten Abweichungen im Segmentierungsverhalten bei MP, wobei größere Abweichungen mit mehr Fehlern im Gedächtnisabruf der zeitlichen Ereignisabfolge einhergingen. Darüber hinaus weisen wenige Verhaltensstudien auf eine gestörte zeitliche Ereignisverarbeitung bei MP hin, aber zugrundeliegende Mechanismen wurden selten untersucht. Resultate zur Struktur und zum Abruf von Ereigniswissen im Langzeitgedächtnis sind uneindeutig. In Studie 2 analysierten wir daher Verhaltensleistungen und ereigniskorrelierte Potenziale (ERPs) als Reaktion auf zeitliche und inhaltliche Verletzungen in Ereignissequenzen. Personen mit MP zeigten höhere Fehlerraten und verlangsamte Reaktionszeiten in Antwort auf zeitliche Ereignisfehler im Vergleich zu Kontrollprobanden. Neurophysiologisch deutete ein vorzeitiger Latenzbeginn der „late posivitive component“ (LPC) in Reaktion auf die zeitlichen Ereignisfehler bei MP darauf hin, dass diese unerwartet waren und hohe neuronale Ressourcen zur Verarbeitung erforderten. Bei inhaltlichen Verletzungen zeigten Kontrollprobanden einen N400-Effekt, der auf eine semantische Mismatch-Reaktion zwischen dem fehlerhaften Ereignis und Ereignismodell hinwies. Dieser Effekt fehlte bei der MP-Gruppe, was auf Beeinträchtigungen beim Abruf strukturierter Ereignisrepräsentationen hindeutet. Kombiniert belegen die Ergebnisse eine beeinträchtigte Alltagsereignisverarbeitung bei MP mit möglichen Auswirkungen auf Verhaltensdefizite in alltäglichen Routinen. / Persons with Parkinson’s disease (PD) encounter challenges in remembering, planning, and executing daily routines. Beyond the typical motor symptoms, impairments in processing everyday events could play an essential role in this context. However, deficits and associated underlying neuronal mechanisms of event processing in PD have hardly been investigated. In Study 1, we examined the segmentation behavior during naturalistic movie viewing (i.e., event segmentation) and its relation to event memory in PD, as respective impairments can be expected due to dysfunctions in dopaminergic striatal-cortical networks. Results showed that persons with PD deviated from healthy controls' segmentation patterns and that the more the segmentation differed from the normative pattern, the more errors persons with PD made in recalling the temporal order of the perceived events. Further, some behavioral studies suggest impaired temporal event processing in PD, but underlying mechanisms are rarely examined. Findings on long-term event knowledge are so far inconclusive. Thus, in Study 2, we analyzed behavioral performance and event-related potentials (ERPs) in response to temporally and content-related violated event sequences. Persons with PD exhibited less accurate performance and slowed reaction times to temporal violations compared to controls. On the neurophysiological level, persons with PD expressed a premature latency onset of the late positive component (LPC) upon temporal violations compared to controls suggesting that temporal errors were highly unexpected, demanding high neuronal resources to process in PD. In response to content violations, controls expressed a N400 indicating a semantic mismatch reaction between the erroneous event and the event model, which was absent in the PD group, suggesting impaired retrieval and disorganized event representations. Combined findings highlight impaired event processing in PD, shedding light on behavioral deficits in daily routines.

Eine überaktive Überwachung eigener Handlungen, welche sich in erhöhten Amplituden der error-related negativity (ERN) zeigt, scheint eine zentrale Rolle in der Pathophysiologie der Zwangsstörung zu spielen. Die funktionelle Bedeutsamkeit der ERN, die Mechanismen, die zur erhöhten ERN bei Zwangsstörungen beitragen und der Nutzen der ERN als Ansatzpunkt für Interventionen sind jedoch nicht vollständig geklärt. Diese Dissertation umfasst drei Studien, deren Ziel es war, diese Aspekte zu untersuchen. Studie 1 untersuchte die affektive Bewertung eigener Handlungen und zeigte, dass Handlungen automatisch affektive Valenz zugeschrieben wird. Darauf aufbauend untersuchte Studie 2, ob die ERN die Valenzbewertung von Fehlern widerspiegelt und ob eine veränderte Fehlerbewertung zur erhöhten ERN bei Zwangsstörungen beiträgt. Die Ergebnisse zeigten, dass Personen mit Zwangsstörung eine verminderte Valenzbewertung von Fehlern aufweisen, lieferten aber keine Hinweise auf einen Zusammenhang zwischen ERN und Fehlerbewertung, was nahelegt, dass eine veränderte Fehlerbewertung nicht der erhöhten ERN bei Zwangsstörungen zugrunde liegt. Studie 3 untersuchte, ob die ERN durch nicht-invasive Hirnstimulation modulierbar ist und lieferte Hinweise darauf, dass kathodale transkranielle Gleichstromstimulation über dem prä-supplementär motorischen Areal die ERN bei gesunden Personen und Personen mit Zwangsstörung reduziert. Zusammenfassend zeigen die Studien, dass die Handlungsüberwachung die affektive Bewertung eigener Handlungen umfasst und dass dieser Prozess bei Zwangsstörungen verändert ist; eine veränderte Fehlerbewertung scheint jedoch nicht der erhöhten ERN bei Zwangsstörungen zugrunde zu liegen. Diese Erkenntnisse tragen zum Verständnis neurokognitiver Veränderungen bei dieser Störung bei. Zudem zeigen die Ergebnisse, dass nicht-invasive Hirnstimulation das Potenzial hat, die ERN bei Personen mit Zwangsstörung abzuschwächen. Dies könnte den Weg für neue Interventionsstrategien ebnen. / Overactive performance monitoring, as indicated by increased amplitudes of the error-related negativity (ERN), is considered to play a central role in the pathophysiology of obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD). However, the functional significance of the ERN, the mechanisms contributing to increased ERN amplitudes in OCD, and the utility of the ERN as a target for intervention are not fully understood. This dissertation comprises three studies that aimed to shed light on these questions. Study 1 examined the affective evaluation of own actions, revealing that affective valence is automatically assigned to actions. Building upon this, Study 2 investigated whether the ERN reflects the valence evaluation of errors and whether altered error evaluation contributes to heightened ERN magnitude in OCD. The results indicated that individuals with OCD show reduced valence evaluation of errors, yet they provided no evidence for an association between ERN and error evaluation, suggesting that altered error evaluation may not underlie elevated ERN magnitude in OCD. Study 3 investigated whether the ERN can be modulated by non-invasive brain stimulation, and provided tentative evidence that cathodal transcranial direct current stimulation over the presupplementary motor area reduces the ERN in healthy individuals and individuals with OCD. In summary, the studies provide evidence that performance monitoring encompasses the affective evaluation of own actions and demonstrate that this process is altered in OCD; however, aberrant error evaluation does not seem to underlie heightened ERN amplitudes in OCD. These insights contribute to the understanding of neurocognitive alterations in this disorder. Additionally, the results suggest that non-invasive brain stimulation has the potential to attenuate the ERN in individuals with OCD, which may pave the way for novel intervention strategies.

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