Chromatin diminution is defined as the elimination of DNA during the differentiation of early embryonic cells into pre-somatic cells. While it was first observed in the nematode Parascaris equorum, it also been identified in other parasitic nematodes, hagfish and copepods. In the copepod Mesocyclops edax, up to 90% of genomic DNA is eliminated during chromatin diminution. It was previously shown that the eliminated DNA contained highly repetitive heterochromatic sequences. Here, we digested pre- and post-diminution DNA with BamHI and produced small libraries of clones from each. Analyses revealed no decrease in low copy numbered sequences, such as transposable elements. Rather, both libraries are found to be surprisingly similar in all aspects analysed. Further comparison also demonstrated similarity of our libraries with the DNA sequences eliminated from Cyclops kolensis. Consequently, we suggest that M. edax eliminates portions of euchromatic DNA, in addition to the previously characterized satellite sequences.

Chromatin diminution is defined as the elimination of DNA during the differentiation of early embryonic cells into pre-somatic cells. While it was first observed in the nematode Parascaris equorum, it also been identified in other parasitic nematodes, hagfish and copepods. In the copepod Mesocyclops edax, up to 90% of genomic DNA is eliminated during chromatin diminution. It was previously shown that the eliminated DNA contained highly repetitive heterochromatic sequences. Here, we digested pre- and post-diminution DNA with BamHI and produced small libraries of clones from each. Analyses revealed no decrease in low copy numbered sequences, such as transposable elements. Rather, both libraries are found to be surprisingly similar in all aspects analysed. Further comparison also demonstrated similarity of our libraries with the DNA sequences eliminated from Cyclops kolensis. Consequently, we suggest that M. edax eliminates portions of euchromatic DNA, in addition to the previously characterized satellite sequences.

Chromatin diminution is defined as the elimination of DNA during the differentiation of early embryonic cells into pre-somatic cells. While it was first observed in the nematode Parascaris equorum, it also been identified in other parasitic nematodes, hagfish and copepods. In the copepod Mesocyclops edax, up to 90% of genomic DNA is eliminated during chromatin diminution. It was previously shown that the eliminated DNA contained highly repetitive heterochromatic sequences. Here, we digested pre- and post-diminution DNA with BamHI and produced small libraries of clones from each. Analyses revealed no decrease in low copy numbered sequences, such as transposable elements. Rather, both libraries are found to be surprisingly similar in all aspects analysed. Further comparison also demonstrated similarity of our libraries with the DNA sequences eliminated from Cyclops kolensis. Consequently, we suggest that M. edax eliminates portions of euchromatic DNA, in addition to the previously characterized satellite sequences.

Zusammenfassung Die Asteraceae Brachycome dichromosomatica ist eine besonders geeignete Spezies, um B-Chromosomen zu analysieren. Die auf den B-Chromosomen-lokalisierte 45S rDNA wurde auf Ursprung und Funktion untersucht. Die Mikrodissektion von B-Chromosomen und PCR-Amplifikation ermöglichte es, B-Chromosomen-spezifische ITS2-Sequenzen der 45S rDNA zu erhalten. Auffallend bei dieser Analyse waren zwei beständige Differenzen zwischen den Sequenzen von A- und B-Chromosomen. Phylogenetische Untersuchungen identifizierten keine Spezies, die eine ITS2-Sequenz hatte, die ähnlicher zu der B-Chromosomen-ITS2-Sequenz war als die A-Chromosomen-ITS2-Sequenz von B. dichromosomatica. Es wurde ein Ursprung der B-Chromosomen in der Zeit vor der Ausbildung der vier Cytodeme von B. dichromosomatica postuliert. Die Analyse der Assoziationen von Mikro-B-Chromosomen mit dem Nukleolus ergab, dass 70% der Mikro-B-Chromosomen nicht mit dem Nukleolus assoziierten. Die hohe Frequenz von nichtassoziierten Mikro-B-Chromosomen weist auf eine Inaktivität der Mikro-B-Chromosomen-lokalisierten 45S rDNA hin. Die Immunfluoreszenzmarkierung zeigte, dass sich das Chromatin der A- und B-Chromosomen deutlich in der euchromatischen Histon-H3-Methylierung unterscheidet. Während die A-Chromosomen deutliche Immunfluoreszenzsignale aufwiesen, zeigten die Mikro-B- und Standard-B-Chromosomen nur eine schwache Markierung mit Antikörpern gegen Histon H3K4me1,2,3, H3K9me3 und H3K27me2,3. Die heteropygnotischen, mit Tandem-Repeats angereicherten Mikro-B-Chromosomen waren dabei noch weniger mit diesen euchromatischen Markierungen gekennzeichnet als die Standard-B-Chromosomen. Keine Unterschiede zwischen den A- und B-Chromosomen wurden für die heterochromatischen Markierungen Histon H3K9me1,2 und H3K27me1 gefunden, was darauf hinweist, dass die B-Chromosomen nicht spezifisch durch zusätzliche heterochromatische Histonmarkierungen gekennzeichnet sind. / Summary The Asteraceae Brachycome dichromosomatica is a suitable species for the analysis of B chromosomes (Bs). The origin and activity of micro B-located 45S rDNA of was analysed. Microisolation of Bs and PCR with internal transcribed spacer 2 (ITS2)-specific primers succeeded in the isolation of B-specific ITS2-sequences. ITS2 was sequenced for micro B, large B and A chromosomes, and conserved differences were identified between sequences originating from A and both types of Bs. Phylogenetic analysis did not identify a species that contained an ITS2 sequence that was more similar to either of the B’s sequences than that of the B. dichromosomatica A chromosomes (As). Thus, an origin of the Bs from As at a time prior to the divergence of the four cytodemes of B. dichromosomatica is suggested. Because 70% of micro Bs did not co-localize with the nucleolus I conclude that micro B-located 45S rDNA is not constitutively transcribed. Immunofluorescence demonstrates that the chromatin in A and both types of Bs differs markedly in euchromatic histone H3 methylation marks. While A chromosomes are labelled brightly, the micro B and large Bs are faintly labelled with antibodies against H3K4me2/3, H3K9me3 and H3K27me2/3. The heteropycnotic, tandem-repeat enriched micro Bs were even less labelled with euchromatic histone H3 methylation marks than large Bs. No differences between A and Bs were found as to the heterochromatic marks H3K9me1/2 and H3K27me1, indicating that Bs are not additionally labelled by heterochromatin typical histone H3 modifications. 1

Ce travail de thèse s'inscrit dans le cadre d'une recherche fondamentale visant à améliorer la compréhension des mécanismes d'interaction des rayonnements ionisants avec la matière biologique en s’intéressant à la prédiction par simulations numériques des dommages précoces radio-induits à l’ADN. Dans un premier temps, une étude sur le rôle des différents niveaux de compaction de la chromatine (hétérochromatine et euchromatine) dans l’induction de ces premiers effets, à savoir les cassures de brins de l’ADN, est proposée. De nouveaux modèles géométriques réalistes de noyaux cellulaires intégrant la compaction de la chromatine ont donc été créés et utilisés dans une chaîne de calcul, basée sur le code Monte Carlo ouvert et généraliste Geant4 et son extension Geant4-DNA, permettant de simuler les étapes physique, physico-chimique et chimique menant aux cassures de brin. Les développements effectués dans cette thèse ont également permis d’étudier l’impact de plusieurs types de rayonnement (protons, alphas, photons) sur les dommages radio-induits. Les différents résultats ont été confrontés à des données expérimentales et en particulier à celles obtenues par l’équipe de radiobiologistes de l’IRSN. Enfin, une étude portant sur les effets plus tardifs comme la réparation de l’ADN et la mort cellulaire a été réalisée par l’utilisation conjointe de la chaîne de calcul et de certains modèles paramétriques issus de la littérature. Ainsi, les résultats obtenus dans cette thèse ont permis d’acquérir de nouvelles connaissances et de développer des outils de calcul qui seront bientôt disponibles en accès libre à la communauté scientifique afin de prédire des effets biologiques de plusieurs types de rayonnement dans la perspective d’améliorer les modèles de risque. / This thesis work is part of a fundamental research aimed at improving the understanding of the mechanisms of interaction of ionizing radiation with biological matter by focusing on the prediction of early radiation-induced DNA damage by numerical simulations. As a first step, a study on the role of the different levels of chromatin compaction (heterochromatin and euchromatin) in the induction of these early effects, namely DNA strand breaks, is proposed. New realistic geometric models of cell nuclei integrating chromatin compaction have therefore been created and used in a calculation chain, based on the open source and general purpose Monte Carlo code Geant4 and its extension Geant4-DNA, to simulate the physical, physico-chemical and chemical stages leading to strand breaks. Developments in this thesis have also allowed studying the impact of several types of radiation (protons, alphas, photons) on radiation-induced damage. The various results were compared with experimental data and in particular those obtained by the IRSN team of radiobiologists. Finally, a study on later effects such as DNA repair and cell death was carried out using both the calculation chain and some parametric models from the literature. Thus, the results obtained in this thesis have made it possible to acquire new knowledge and to develop calculation tools that will soon be delivered in free access to the scientific community in order to predict the biological effects of several types of radiation with the aim of improving risk models.

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