The plea of applying the exhaustion doctrine to intangible copies of copyrighted artistic works has been extensively discussed within scholar circles. Although, the debate substantially concerns provisions of the international treaties and the explanation of the exhaustion doctrine under European Union copyright law, the subject brings more uncertainties. Under the European Union copyright law the distribution right is exhausted after the first sale with the consent of a right holder. However, there is neither explicit regulation nor decision in regard to the exhaustion doctrine to the online resale of digital goods. As the act of distribution is shifting and fulfilled through digital means these days, the application of the first sale doctrine is challenged. The given work provides with the legal, organizational and technological analysis of the exhaustion doctrine under European Union copyright law and possible scenarios in respect to digital secondary market.

Jau nuo seno geografinės nuorodos savo koncepcija išsivystė kaip pirmieji prekių ženklai. Intensyvėjant bei sudėtingėjant komerciniams santykiams geografinės nuorodos ir prekių ženklai tapo skirtingomis kategorijomis žymenų, kurių registraciją, apsaugą bei naudojimą reglamentuoja intelektinės nuosavybės teisės normos. Visgi, nors tai skirtingi pramoninės nuosavybės teisės institutai, geografinės nuorodos ir prekių ženklai sutampa daugeliu aspektų. Visų pirma, šie žymenys, naudojami komercinėje aplinkoje, sutampa jiems priskirtomis funkcijomis, t.y. jie abu atlieka prekių ar paslaugų atskyrimo, kilmės šaltinio identifikavimo, kokybės identifikavimo bei vartotojų informavimo funkcijas. Be šios sutapties, geografinės nuorodos ir prekių ženklai yra panašūs, nes privalo turėti skiriamąjį požymį, o taip pat sutampa ir jų išraiškos formos bei apsaugos galiojimo laikas. Visi išvardinti panašumai, išreiškiantys ryšį tarp geografinių nuorodų ir prekių ženklų, gali lemti painiavą rinkoje bei pramoninės nuosavybės išimtinių teisių pažeidimus, todėl teisiniai mechanizmai, skirti reguliuoti šių žymenų registraciją, apsaugą ir naudojimą yra įtvirtinti siekiant išlaikyti pusiausvyrą tarp vartotojų ir gamintojų, išimtinių teisių turėtojų interesų. Numatyti teisėti geografinių nuorodų ir prekių ženklų naudotojai dėl pažeistų teisių gali remtis skirtingais būdais. Bendrai yra numatyti tokie ginčų sprendimų variantai: pagal taikytiną teisę, pagal atskirų pramoninės nuosavybės objektų teisės... [toliau žr. visą tekstą] / For a long time, geographical indications have developed as the first trade marks. As the commercial relations become more intensive and complex, geographical indications and trade marks has become two different categories of signs, the registration, protection and usage of which is governed by the rules of intellectual property law. Nonetheless, even though geographical indications and trade marks are different institutes of industrial property law, they coincide in a majority of aspects. First of all, the fore-mentioned signs used in commercial environment coincide in the attributed functions, i.e. both of them perform the functions of distinguishing goods or services, identification of the source of origin, identification of quality and information of customers. In addition to the considered coincidence, geographical indications and trade marks are similar, since both of them must have a distinctive character; furthermore, their forms of expression and term of protection are in coincidence. All above similarities implying a relation between geographical indications and trade marks may determine confusion in the market and infringements of the exclusive rights of industrial property; therefore, legal mechanisms intended for the regulation of the registration, protection and usage of the considered signs have been established to keep the balance between the interests of customers and producers and holders of exclusive rights. As for the infringements of rights, the... [to full text]

The thesis examines to what extent copyright holders can enforce the online reproduction and communication rights against online service providers in Egypt. The objective of the thesis is therefore to highlight that the existing Egyptian copyright law 2002/82 is insufficient to impose liability on internet service providers, both substantively and also with regards to enforcement. Various recommendations are thus made to improve the legislative framework in Egypt, all with a view of achieving that a fair balance is struck for all those parties, who/which are involved in digital communications, particularly online end users, so that their rights to online privacy and access to information are preserved. For this purpose, a comparative methodology has been adopted and recourse is made to US and European laws. This comparative approach is further complemented by a critical examination of existing deficiencies within the legislative liability regime for internet service providers in the US and Europe in order to ensure that foreign laws are not merely transplanted, but that the best and most suitable legislative framework is adopted by the Egyptian legislator.

Comme deux éléments qui ne peuvent coexister sans se nuire, les exceptions au droit d’auteur et les mesures techniques de protection sont dans un rapport d’opposition. On ne compte plus dans la littérature spécialisée le nombre d’articles dédiés à leur incompatibilité. Les exceptions au droit d’auteur sont des « dérogations légales » au monopole d’exploitation. Elles permettent d’écarter la mise en oeuvre du droit exclusif alors que les conditions d’application de ce dernier sont réunies. Les mesures techniques de protection sont destinées à empêcher les utilisations interdites par les titulaires de droits. La question est de savoir si ces dispositifs techniques peuvent restreindre l’exercice des exceptions au droit d’auteur. La réponse est positive puisque la directive 2001/29/CE du 22 mai 2001 interdit de contourner des mesures techniques quand bien même il s’agirait de mettre en oeuvre une dérogation au droit d’auteur. Cependant, l’instrument européen instaure un régime de sauvegarde en faveur de certaines exceptions. Aussi, le législateur français a créé une autorité administrative indépendante – la Haute Autorité pour la diffusion des oeuvres et la protection des droits sur Internet – chargée de garantir le bénéfice de ces exceptions. Il est permis de se demander si l’instauration d’un régime de sauvegarde n’est pas la reconnaissance implicite de la valeur impérative des dérogations au droit d’auteur. En tous les cas, cela donne à penser que les exceptions constituent bel et bien des intérêts juridiquement protégés susceptibles d’être portés devant l’autorité judiciaire contrairement à ce qu’a jugé la Cour de cassation. / Like two elements that cannot coexist without working against each other, exceptions to exclusive rights and technological protection measures are in opposition. There are countless articles in the specialised literature devoted to their incompatibility. Exceptions to exclusive rights are “legal exemptions” from the operating monopoly. They enable the implementation of exclusive rights to be neutralised even though the conditions for the application of the latter have been met. Technological protection measures are intended to prevent unauthorised use by rightholders. The question is whether these technological systems can restrict the use of exceptions to exclusive rights. The answer is affirmative, since the directive 2001/29/CE of 22 May 2001 prohibits the circumvention of technological measures even though it would be a case of implementing an exemption to exclusive rights. The European instrument, however, establishes a protection system in favour of certain exceptions. Consequently, French lawmakers have created an independent administrative authority – the High Authority for the dissemination of creative works and protection of rights on the Internet – in order to safeguard the benefits of these exceptions. It could be asked whether the establishment of a protection system implicitly acknowledges the crucial value of these exceptions. In any event, it suggests that they do indeed constitute legally protected interests liable to be brought before the legal authorities, contrary to the Court of Cassation’s assertions.

Les biens d'usage public sont la catégorie centrale de la construction du droit administratif des biens. L'absence d'une analyse d'ensemble de la catégorie, en droit colombien, pousse à revoir les bases sur lesquelles elle repose et ses conséquences. Plus que toute autre catégorie juridique, les biens d'usage public sont tributaires de leur histoire, c'est dans l'étude de cette dernière que se trouvent les clés d'interprétation de tout le système. Le modèle utilisé par le code civil colombien a été calqué sur la division des biens publics, opérée par le droit espagnol colonial – inspirée à son tour du droit romain. Une mise à jour s'avère nécessaire. À partir de la notion de propriété publique, et de son régime constitutionnel, il est possible de construire une définition matérielle des biens d'usage public, permettant de comprendre les caractéristiques de l'usage public. Cela implique, aussi, une révision complète du régime juridique à la lumière de l'exploitation sociale et économique – valorisation – de la propriété publique. À une triple protection, celle de la propriété publique, du bien d'usage public et de l'usager, s'ajoute une nouvelle approche des occupations privatives. Cette idée d'exploitation sociale et économique anime un nouveau régime des titres habilitant l'occupation privative, des redevances pour occupation des biens d'usage public et des droits réels administratifs. / Regulation of public property available for public use is at the core of administrative law. The Colombian Civil Code has copied colonial Spanish law in the matter, which in turn was inspired by Roman law. However, the absence of an exhaustive and coherent regulation in Colombia has forced the interpreter to study its foundation and further developments to interpret it. An update of this legal system is, therefore, imperative. Beginning with the concept of public property and its constitutional regulation, it is poss ible to analyze the elements of its public use, which will allow proposing a definition of those assets. It is necessary to analyze the regulation of these public properties under the light of their social and economic value. The protection granted by the law to the concepts of public property, public use and public user, has to be assessed under the new approach of the administrative authorizations pertaining to such public property. This notion of social and economic value will also allow scholars/people to have a new vision of the regulation of administrative authorizations, the exclusive rights (in rem) they confer and the income they produce.