Die Mobilität und der damit verbundene Verkehr sind ein zentraler Baustein unserer heutigen Gesell-schaft, deren individuelle Nutzenstiftung offensichtlich und unumstritten ist. Als weitaus weniger augenscheinlich werden hingegen die damit einhergehenden externen Effekte wahrgenommen, welche der gesamten Gesellschaft angelastet werden. Nichtsdestotrotz ist anzunehmen, dass der Umfang dieser verkehrsbedingten Externalitäten beträchtlich ist. Die folgende Arbeit beschäftigt sich deshalb mit der Fragestellung, welche unkompensierten volks-wirtschaftlichen Verluste durch den Verkehr am Beispiel des Freistaates Sachsen entstehen. Dafür wurden zunächst die wichtigsten Grundlagen zur Thematik der verkehrsbezo-genen externen Effekte erarbeitet. Hierbei zeigte sich, dass es vor allem die Kosten des Verkehrs sind, bei denen der externe Anteil einen hohen Stellenwert einnimmt, weshalb diese auch den Hauptgegenstand der vorliegenden Untersuchung abbilden. Im Hinblick darauf sind insbesondere die Kosten aufgrund von Unfällen, Lärm, Luftverschmutzung, Treibhausgasemissionen, vor- und nachgelagerten Prozessen sowie der Inanspruchnahme von Natur- und Landschaft zu nennen. Aufbauend auf den theoretischen Grundlagen wurden die einzelnen externen Kosten für Sachsen bestimmt. Dies erfolgte unter Einbeziehung aktueller wissenschaftlicher Erkenntnisse aus unter-schiedlichen Studien und Projekte sowie auf Basis gegenwartsnaher Eingangsdaten von verschiedenen sächsischen Landesämtern. Im Ergebnis der Berechnungen konnten durch Externalitäten des sächsischen Verkehrs verursachte Kosten in Höhe von 7,2 Mrd. € pro Jahr (hohe Schätzung) festgelegt werden, was ganzen 7,4% des sächsischen Bruttoinlandsproduktes entspricht. Der Straßenverkehr hat mit 94% daran den größten Anteil. Darüber hinaus erschienen die Unfälle und Klimagasemissionen als besonders nachteilig. Im Vergleich der einzelnen Verkehrsmittel sind es speziell Krafträder, PKW und Sattelzugmaschinen, welche beträchtliche Durchschnittskosten offenbaren. Angesichts dieser Resultate wird deshalb auf die Dringlichkeit von Internalisierungsmaßnahmen im Verkehrsbereich hingewiesen.

Aircraft noise, for the first time in Thailand, has gained public attention as a significant environmental issue since Bangkok s Suvarnabhumi Airport opened in 2006. Residential areas around the airport are expanding rapidly while local residents are protesting about the noise from the new airport which suggests a tension between economic benefits and environmental problems at the airport. This thesis sets out to obtain valuation of aviation externalities at Suvarnabhumi airport using the stated choice method. It is the first study to obtain and compare valuations from perspectives of the polluters (Thai air passengers) and the polluted (residents) at the same airport. Furthermore, this is the first study to obtain a valuation of local impacts from aircraft operations and from air passengers. It starts by investigating perceptions and awareness of the benefits and costs of aviation activities among Suvarnabhumi s residents and passengers using focus groups and questionnaires. It then employs the stated choice method to elicit willingness-to-pay (WTP) and willingness-to-accept (WTA) values of aviation externalities. The results found that the perceived environmental problems at Suvarnabhumi airport are in line with the literature mainly involving aircraft noise and its effects. This study also found that the development of the airport and surrounding area, while creating business and employment opportunities, has also created traffic and flooding problems. In terms of air pollution from aircraft, residents concerns are confined to local impacts from aircraft. Thai air passengers were found to be more concerned with engine pollution than noise. These findings were reflected in the values obtained. Two stated choice designs were used to elicit values. The first rerouted the aircraft flight path away from residents homes thus reducing aircraft noise and pollution in the area. This design also included travel time to place of work or to the shops. The rerouting attribute was not statistically significant. However, the travel time attribute reveals that residents were willing to accept 14.23 baht a month to have their travel time to work or shopping increased by 1%. The second design was used to obtain and compare values between Suvarnabhumi s residents and air passengers. In this design, attributes for aircraft noise, local air pollution and carbon emissions were included. Residents willingness to pay to reduce aircraft noise by 1% is 104.76 baht/year whereas passengers are willing to pay less, at 70.63 baht per year. Air passengers place a higher value on local air pollution than the residents. Passengers are willing to pay 97.72 baht to reduce local pollution by 1% per year, whereas residents willingness to pay is 45.36 baht. Lastly, passengers WTP to offset carbon is 473.26 baht per flight, whereas residents carbon offset coefficient is not statistically significant. The obtained values are well within the range of existing studies on aircraft noise and carbon emission valuations. Findings from this study suggest that current mitigation measures at Suvarnabhumi airport are still inadequate. There are areas where the situation is likely to get worse given the rapid growth in aviation activities and urban development at the airport. The values from this study may be used to help form the basis of fairer and more transparent compensation system alongside an operational mitigation policy to address aviation impacts. On the passenger side, the stated willingness-to-pay to reduce the impact gives an opportunity for the Thai aviation industry to promote an environmentally friendly behaviour among the travelling public.

This dissertation contains three essays describing experiments in game theory and economics. Chapter one studies mixed strategies by asking whether game players are willing to pay for randomization. A natural intuition for mixed strategies is randomization for unpredictability, but this is theoretically fragile. A player should only randomize between strategies if indifferent, and then could choose a disequilibrium strategy. Various theories describe mixed strategies not as random play, but heterogeneous pure-strategy play. I conduct experiments in which players can choose to pay a fee to use a randomization device, applied to O’Neill’s zero-sum game. If subjects did so, it would show a strict preference for randomization over any available pure strategy. In fact, very few chose to use the randomization device. Subjects’ descriptions of their decision process were consistent with the notion of purification. Chapter two also studies mixed strategies, asking whether randomization is a property of individual choice or game play. In two experiments, game players are mirrored by guessers who make predictions about game play, distinguishing best-responding from game playing. In a Matching Pennies game, I find that game players are they are both more interested in unpredictability and actually more random. In an Asymmetric Matching Pennies game, I look at whether players are willing to forgo expected payoff in order to be unpredictable, and find little difference between players and guessers, with players being somewhat better at exploiting disequilibrium play. Chapter three experimentally implements markets for competing goods with network effects. Markets with strong network effects often have multiple equilibria, including winner-take-all equilibria in which one firm has a monopoly. Firms may compete dynamically with the aim of locking-in to a favorable equilibrium. In this paper we create an experimental market with differentiated products and network effects. When lock-in is created by simulating naïve buyers, monopoly does arise with sellers setting high prices. With human buyers, markets without switching costs are extremely competitive, with no support for stories of lock-in and monopoly. Markets with switching costs are inefficient, but this is overwhelmingly due to the individual switching costs rather than monopoly.

<p>I study local shocks to consumer credit supply arising from the opening</p><p>of bank-related retail stores. Bank-related store openings coincide with</p><p>sharp increases in credit card placements in the neighborhood of the</p><p>store, in the months surrounding the store opening, and with the bank</p><p>that owns the store. I exploit this relationship to instrument for new</p><p>credit cards at the individual level, and find that obtaining a new</p><p>credit card sharply increases total borrowing as well as default risk,</p><p>particularly for risky and opaque borrowers. In line with theories of</p><p>default externality, I observe that existing lenders react to the</p><p>increased consumer borrowing and associated riskiness by contracting</p><p>their own supply. In particular, in the year following the issuance of a</p><p>new credit card, banks without links to stores reduce credit card limits</p><p>by 24-51%, offsetting most of the initial increase in total credit</p><p>limits.</p> / Dissertation

Ainda que a invenção do automóvel tenha gerado diversos benefícios para a sociedade, atualmente, podem ser identificadas várias externalidades negativas associadas ao seu consumo, como congestionamentos, poluição sonora, visual e atmosférica, e, geração de resíduos sólidos. No que se refere às emissões de gases poluentes, foco deste estudo, as repercussões são visivelmente imediatas na saúde da população, principalmente no aumento de problemas respiratórios. Assim, dado o crescente aumento da frota de veículos e o fato de, em 2014, 33,40% da frota nacional de autoveículos (automóveis, comerciais leves, caminhões e ônibus) e 21,44% das motocicletas estarem concentradas no estado de São Paulo, a presente pesquisa objetiva mensurar as emissões de gases poluentes de escapamento, por veículos automotores rodoviários nos 645 municípios paulistas, para o período de 2006 a 2015. A metodologia adotada neste estudo é a mesma utilizada pela CETESB e consiste numa abordagem do tipo bottom-up. Nessa abordagem, além da quantidade consumida de combustíveis, também no cálculo das estimativas empregam-se o fator de emissão segundo o tipo de veículo, de poluente e de combustível utilizado, a intensidade de uso ou quilometragem média percorrida anualmente por tipo de veículo e a quantidade da frota circulante, segundo sua idade e categoria de veículo. Os gases poluentes estimados foram os seguintes: monóxido de carbono (CO), hidrocarbonetos (HC), hidrocarbonetos não-metano (NMHC), metano (CH4), óxidos de nitrogênio (NOX), aldeídos totais - acetaldeído + formaldeído (RCHO), dióxido de carbono (CO2) e material particulado (MP). A análise destas estimativas foi do tipo descritiva, incluindo também a construção de mapas para melhor identificação das cidades mais emissoras. Na sequência, busca-se relacionar estas emissões com a saúde da população, via análise do número de internações hospitalares devido a problemas respiratórios. Ainda que as emissões estejam concentradas na região conhecida como macrometrópole paulista, três municípios não pertencentes a ela apresentaram altas emissões, dependendo do tipo de gás considerado, a saber, São José do Rio Preto, Bauru e Franca. Tanto na cidade de São Paulo, maior emissora de gases poluentes do estado, como nas demais, ainda se observa uma contribuição expressiva dos veículos com mais de 20 anos para as emissões veiculares totais de monóxido de carbono. Assim, pode-se concluir que uma política de renovação da frota pode reduzir substancialmente tais emissões. Na cidade de São Paulo, em 2015, estes veículos foram responsáveis por 41,5% das emissões de CO, mesmo representando tão somente 6,96% do total da frota de veículos. A partir da vasta e detalhada fonte de dados gerada nesta pesquisa outros estudos podem ser realizados ensejando a implementação de políticas referentes à mobilidade urbana. No que se refere à relação destas emissões com a saúde da população, observando os dados de internações hospitalares por problemas respiratórios nos municípios paulistas, não foi possível estabelecer uma relação direta. O uso de outros métodos para aprofundar o exame dessa questão é particularmente recomendável tendo em vista que diversos outros fatores podem influenciar essas internações, tais como emissões de outras fontes que não as veiculares, clima, assistência médica preventiva, entre outros. / Although the invention of the automobile has generated several benefits for society, several negative externalities associated with its consumption, such as congestion, noise, visual and atmospheric pollution, and solid waste generation can be identified. Regarding the emission of pollutant gases, which consists on the focus of this study, its consequences are immediately noticeable in the health of the population, mainly the increase of respiratory problems. Thus, given the growing fleet of vehicles, and that 33.40% of the national fleet of motor vehicles (automobiles, light commercial vehicles, trucks and buses) and 21.44% of the motorcycles were concentrated in São Paulo state, in 2014, this research aims to measure emissions of pollutant gases by road vehicles, for the 645 municipalities of this state, between 2006 and 2015. The methodology applied is the same used by CETESB and consists of a bottom-up approach. In addition to the volume of fuel consumed, we also consider the emission factor according to the vehicle category, the pollutant emitted and the type of fuel consumed, the intensity of use or average mileage traveled by each vehicle category and the total active fleet, categorized by its age and type of vehicle. The gaseous pollutants estimated were carbon monoxide (CO), hydrocarbons (HC), non-methane hydrocarbons (NMHC), methane (CH4), nitrogen oxides (NOX), total aldehydes - acetaldehyde + formaldehyde (RCHO), Carbon dioxide (CO2) and particulate matter (PM). We conducted a descriptive analysis of these estimates, also including the construction of maps for better identification of the major emitting cities. The aim is to relate these emissions to the population´s health, by analyzing the number of hospital admissions due to respiratory problems. Although emissions are concentrated in the region known as São Paulo metropolitan area, three outside municipalities also presented high emissions for some of the examined gases, namely São José do Rio Preto, Bauru and Franca. In São Paulo city, the largest emitter in the state, as in those cities just listed, an expressive contribution of vehicles older than 20 years was found in the total vehicular emissions of carbon monoxide. Therefore we conclude that a policy of fleet´s renewal can substantially reduce such emissions. In the city of São Paulo, in 2015, these vehicles accounted for 41.5% of CO emissions, although they represent only 6.96% of the total fleet of vehicles. In addition, the vast and detailed data source generated by this research allows carrying out other studies focusing on the implementation of policies related to urban mobility. Regarding the relation between emissions and the population health, we could not establish a direct causality only by examining the data of hospitalizations due to respiratory problems in the São Paulo´s municipalities. The use of other methods to deepen the analysis is particularly advisable for this issue in view of the fact that several other factors can influence hospitalizations for respiratory problems, such as emissions from other sources than vehicles, weather, and preventive medical care, among others.

Cálculo de custo ambiental é um conceito que surgiu a partir da crescente atenção dada às questões ambientais. Um impacto ambiental, convertido em termos econômicos, é um custo ambiental. Para esse cálculo, são utilizados programas computacionais, como o Simplified Approach of Estimating Impacts of Electricity Generation (SIMPACTS), que é um código que estima e quantifica os custos dos danos ambientais e danos à saúde ocasionados por diferentes tecnologias de geração de eletricidade. O objetivo desse trabalho é realizar o cálculo de custo ambiental das usinas nucleares de Angra 1, 2 e 3. Os resultados foram comparados com os dados do reator de Balakovo, da hidrelétrica Serra da Mesa e de uma usina a carvão genérica na França, contidos no próprio programa. O SIMPACTS possui três módulos: AIRPACTS, para quantificar os impactos e custos dos danos causados pelas emissões atmosféricas; NUKPACTS, para avaliar as doses coletivas e os efeitos na saúde latentes da operação de rotina de instalações nucleares e usinas a carvão; HYDROPACTS, para calcular os custos dos danos das barragens de hidrelétricas decorrentes da reinstalação de pessoas em virtude de inundações e perda de uso da terra. Nesse trabalho, foram utilizados os módulos NUKPACTS e HYDROPACTS para a realização dos cálculos. Os resultados indicam que um reator nuclear, quando comparado a uma hidrelétrica e termoelétrica de potência similar, causa menores impactos associados e, portanto, um menor custo ambiental. Por essa razão, do ponto de vista dos seus impactos ambientais, os reatores nucleares se tornam uma fonte de geração de energia atrativa. / Calculating the environmental cost is a concept that emerged from the increased attention given to environmental issues. Environmental impact, converted into economic terms, is an environmental cost. For this calculation computational programs, such as Simplified Approach of Estimating Impacts of Electricity Generation (SIMPACTS) are used. SIMPACTS is a code that estimates and quantifies the costs of both, environmental and health damage, caused by different electricity generation technologies. The aim of this work is the calculation of the environmental cost of the nuclear power plants Angra 1, 2 and 3. The results were compared with data provided in the program of the following power plants: the reactor Balakovo, the Serra da Mesa hydroelectric dam and a generic coal plant in France. The SIMPACTS has three modules: AIRPACTS to quantify the impacts and costs of the damage caused by atmospheric emissions; NUKPACTS to assess collective doses and latent health effects of routine operation of nuclear power plants and coal power plants; HYDROPACTS to calculate the damage costs of hydroelectric dams resulting from the relocation of people due to flooding and loss of land use. For this research, NUKPACTS and HYDROPACTS modules were used for calculations. The results indicate that a nuclear reactor, compared with a hydropower plant with similar capacity, causes lower impacts associated and, consequently, lower environmental cost. For this reason, nuclear reactors are an attractive source of power generation from the point of view of the environmental impacts.

This dissertation consists of three papers. A common feature of these papers is the interest in how externalities affect consumers and firms’ behavior. In the first paper, I study one type of contractual externalities called exclusive dealing, whereby one firm cannot deal with the competitors of the other. More specifically, I propose and estimate an empirical structural model to investigate the effects on prices of upstream mergers in markets with exclusive dealing contracts. The second paper is concerned with markets for a good with network externalities, i.e. a good that generates higher utility the higher the number of consumers purchasing it. The third paper studies externalities of investments on quality improvement. When more than one firm is active, the product improvement externality occurs because as firms chose different quality levels, competition is relaxed and consumers get some consumer surplus from product variety. In the case of winner-take-all markets, the business-stealing externality occurs because as one firm invests in quality upgrade, the competitors become more likely to lose all customers. The first chapter examines the incentives for price increase in upstream mergers when the supplier has a network of exclusive dealers (ED). The incentives explored in this paper come from changes in the threat point of the bargaining between the supplier and exclusive retailers. The bargaining power of the exclusive dealer comes from local market power of the dealer or due to reputation aspects (when dealers know that the supplier behaves opportunistically after the ED contract is signed, they will be reluctant in becoming exclusive of that supplier or renewing the contract). The change in the threat point post merger is due to the larger network of exclusive retailers, which enables the merged supplier to recapture a larger portion of the consumers that will be diverted from any specific exclusive dealer in case of disagreement on the wholesale price negotiation. The empirical application explored in this paper uses a unique and comprehensive dataset from the Brazilian fuel industry, with information that includes retail and wholesale prices as well as quantities at the station level. Aside from the good quality, this dataset is adequate for the intended analysis because in Brazil fuel stations can either operate independently (in which case they can purchase from any distributor) or sign an ED contract, when they can only purchase from a specific distributor. Moreover, the data spam a period that includes an important merger. I estimate the model using pre-merger data and simulate the effects of combining the networks of exclusive dealers of the merging companies. The simulation shows that the incentives for price increase are sizable, and the mechanism studied in the paper captures a large fraction of the actual price increase observed in the data. The second chapter, joint with Ilwoo Hwang, studies adoption and pricing when consumers can delay their purchase of a good with network effects. In those cases, price alone does not convey sufficient information for consumers to make their purchase decision and they need to infer about current and future adoption in order to make their decisions. This feature implies that some consumers might find optimal to delay their purchases in order to make their decisions better informed about the success of the network. The multiplicity of equilibria that is typical in the coordination game played by consumers implies that the demand is not well defined for a given price, creating a problem for the firm's pricing decision. We consider a two-period model in which a monopolist sets prices and consumers can delay their purchases to the second period when they will receive information about early adoption. The dynamic coordination problem with endogenous delayed purchases is modeled as a global game, for which we derive conditions for uniqueness of equilibrium. The model is capable of exploring many issues in the economics of network effects such as introductory pricing and early critical mass for platform survival. Our specification nests the pure durables goods and herding models. Numerical results illustrate the amplitude of possible outcomes in the dynamic model with delay. Substantial differences can arise in terms of pricing, adoption and profits when we compare the full specification with multiple benchmarks. In the third chapter, joint with Michael Riordan, we develop a duopoly model of product quality competition that focuses on how information structure determines equilibrium outcomes. When we introduce private and correlated signals about the fundamental uncertainty about quality differences, each firm can form a more educated guess about what the opponent must be doing, which is the key for uniqueness of equilibria. Equilibrium product improvement decisions are unique if and only if market uncertainty is sufficiently high relative to strategic uncertainty, except in a non-generic special case. A unique equilibrium takes the form of threshold strategies, whereby each firm improves its product upon receiving a sufficiently favorable signal of brand advantage. We show that the unique equilibrium depends on the fundamentals as well as on investment costs and that the probability of miscoordination vanishes as strategic uncertainty decreases. In the type of competition studied here, firms have no incentive to choose the same quality as the competition arising in the marketplace would bring prices to equalize marginal cost. Interestingly, this information structure alleviates substantially the problem of miscoordination observed in the no “information game” and also dominates the complete information game for a large range of parameters in the model.

This paper is about introduction of congestion toll in centre of Prague. I look at the toll as an internalization of externalities instrument. Car transport causes high externalities in centres of cities, so there exists a tendency to solve this problem by different arrangements. Altough particular congestion toll project in Prague brings internalization of automobile externalities, this project is not profitable for the society because of high costs.

Cálculo de custo ambiental é um conceito que surgiu a partir da crescente atenção dada às questões ambientais. Um impacto ambiental, convertido em termos econômicos, é um custo ambiental. Para esse cálculo, são utilizados programas computacionais, como o Simplified Approach of Estimating Impacts of Electricity Generation (SIMPACTS), que é um código que estima e quantifica os custos dos danos ambientais e danos à saúde ocasionados por diferentes tecnologias de geração de eletricidade. O objetivo desse trabalho é realizar o cálculo de custo ambiental das usinas nucleares de Angra 1, 2 e 3. Os resultados foram comparados com os dados do reator de Balakovo, da hidrelétrica Serra da Mesa e de uma usina a carvão genérica na França, contidos no próprio programa. O SIMPACTS possui três módulos: AIRPACTS, para quantificar os impactos e custos dos danos causados pelas emissões atmosféricas; NUKPACTS, para avaliar as doses coletivas e os efeitos na saúde latentes da operação de rotina de instalações nucleares e usinas a carvão; HYDROPACTS, para calcular os custos dos danos das barragens de hidrelétricas decorrentes da reinstalação de pessoas em virtude de inundações e perda de uso da terra. Nesse trabalho, foram utilizados os módulos NUKPACTS e HYDROPACTS para a realização dos cálculos. Os resultados indicam que um reator nuclear, quando comparado a uma hidrelétrica e termoelétrica de potência similar, causa menores impactos associados e, portanto, um menor custo ambiental. Por essa razão, do ponto de vista dos seus impactos ambientais, os reatores nucleares se tornam uma fonte de geração de energia atrativa. / Calculating the environmental cost is a concept that emerged from the increased attention given to environmental issues. Environmental impact, converted into economic terms, is an environmental cost. For this calculation computational programs, such as Simplified Approach of Estimating Impacts of Electricity Generation (SIMPACTS) are used. SIMPACTS is a code that estimates and quantifies the costs of both, environmental and health damage, caused by different electricity generation technologies. The aim of this work is the calculation of the environmental cost of the nuclear power plants Angra 1, 2 and 3. The results were compared with data provided in the program of the following power plants: the reactor Balakovo, the Serra da Mesa hydroelectric dam and a generic coal plant in France. The SIMPACTS has three modules: AIRPACTS to quantify the impacts and costs of the damage caused by atmospheric emissions; NUKPACTS to assess collective doses and latent health effects of routine operation of nuclear power plants and coal power plants; HYDROPACTS to calculate the damage costs of hydroelectric dams resulting from the relocation of people due to flooding and loss of land use. For this research, NUKPACTS and HYDROPACTS modules were used for calculations. The results indicate that a nuclear reactor, compared with a hydropower plant with similar capacity, causes lower impacts associated and, consequently, lower environmental cost. For this reason, nuclear reactors are an attractive source of power generation from the point of view of the environmental impacts.

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