The thesis deals with harm reduction in drug addition (damage reducing, next short cut HR) its effectiveness on the world and especially in the Czech Republic. At the beginning there is explained the term HR in drug addition, why did it originate, what does it involve and what are the opinions of the other states about it, mentioned in foreign studies, and economic theory. The main focus dedicates needle exchange programs in lowtreshold centres, in field programs and its additional services -- syringe vending machines, fixed/mobile vans. Next I concentrate on the different general view of the effectivenes analysis, particularly of CEA, CBA, CMA and CUA. The continuous part concerns about situation HR in the Czech Republic, mainly about NEPs and SVMs conducted by Progressive o.s. Thanks to performed questionnaire and other datas from Progressive o.s. I apply effectiveness analysis by using of the appropriate method. At the end I summarize results, I evaluace effectiveness of the services and I suggest possible recommendation for teh Czech Republic in HR.

Este trabalho desenvolve um método de seleção de fronteiras para Análise de Ciclo de Vida (ACV) de sistemas que emitem componentes tóxicos. Isto envolve o desenvolvimento de um modelo de predição de concentração e dose de poluentes emitidos de chaminés, que tem a vantagem de ser simples e não requerer grande número de dados de entrada. Esse modelo e mais os dados de valoração econômica de danos ambientais disponíveis na literatura, compõem o modelo geral de estimativa de custos devido à emissão de poluentes, ou seja, a Análise de Custos em Ciclo de Vida (ACCV). O modelo geral é então usado para definir as fronteiras do sistema de ACCV. Demonstra-se a aplicação do novo método em um ciclo de vida hipotético de produção de celulose. / This work develops a method for Boundary Selection (BS) for Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) of systems with stacks emitting toxics compounds. The new approach involves the development of a model of concentrations and dosage of pollutants in the vicinity of emission source that is simple and non-intensive data is required. This model plus impact costs estimations available at environmental economic studies, comprise the general model of Life Cycle Cost Analysis (LCCA) based on exposure. This general model is then used in the Boundary Selection in LCCA. A demonstration of the application of the model is performed to a hypothetical inventory system of a pulp mill.

O Sistema Único de Saúde no Brasil (SUS) proporciona a incorporação de muitas tecnologias na área médica e, por conseguinte, pode estar exercendo um papel indireto na produção de conhecimento que não está sendo considerado como uma de suas qualidades. Objetivo: analisar se a incorporação de tecnologias pelo Sistema Único de Saúde no Brasil, mais especificamente fármacos, está associada a um aumento da produção de conhecimento científico nacional sobre estas tecnologias. Material e métodos: Trata-se de um estudo descritivo onde foram selecionados alguns fármacos distribuídos pelo Ministério da Saúde. Utilizando o PubMed analisou-se a produção de conhecimento no Brasil e em outros países do mundo sobre estas tecnologias. Comparou-se a posição do Brasil no ranking da produção científica mundial nos 3 anos antes da incorporação dos fármacos pelo SUS com a posição do Brasil no 4º, 5º e 6º anos após a incorporação destas tecnologias. Esta comparação foi feita utilizando teste não paramétrico de Wilcoxon. Resultados: a posição do Brasil no ranking da produção científica das tecnologias farmacológicas melhora para 70 das 90 tecnologias avaliadas. A posição geral média do Brasil passa de 68º para 45º após a incorporação (p < 0,0001). Conclusão: a incorporação de tecnologias farmacológicas pelo SUS está associada a um aumento da produção de conhecimento nacional sobre estas tecnologias / The Brazilian National Health System (SUS) is responsible for the incorporation of many health technologies, and thus, it could be having an indirect function in the scientific production that has not been considered as one of its qualities. Objective: to evaluate if the technologies incorporation by SUS is associated with an increment in national scientific production about those technologies. Material and methods: This is a descriptive study where it was selected some medications (pharmacologic technologies) that are offered by SUS. The PubMed database was used for the search of Brazilian and other countries scientific production about these technologies. The Brazilian international ranking position in the 3 years before SUS incorporation was compared with the position in the 4th, 5th and 6th years after the incorporation. Wilcoxon nonparametric test was used to perform this comparison. Results: the Brazilian international ranking position improves for 70 of the 90 technologies evaluated. The mean Brazilian ranking position went from 68th to 45th after incorporation (p < 0.0001). Conclusion: the incorporation of pharmacologic technologies by SUS is associated with an increment in the national knowledge production about these technologies

CoordenaÃÃo de AperfeÃoamento de Pessoal de NÃvel Superior / As lagostas espinhosas apresentam grande importÃncia nos desembarques nacionais de pescado e, sobretudo, no estado do CearÃ. Representadas pelas espÃcies Panulirus argus e Panulirus laevicauda, apresentam-se em estado de sobrepesca, o que torna necessÃria a reformulaÃÃo do sistema de gestÃo atual a fim de assegurar a sustentabilidade da pescaria. Foi feita uma anÃlise da gestÃo atual do recurso, bem como das consequÃncias da variaÃÃo da composiÃÃo das capturas por tamanho nas profundidades de 0-10 m (setor raso) e 30-50 m (setor intermediÃrio), a partir de amostragens a bordo e da anÃlise de coorte de Jones baseada em comprimentos. Verificou-se que nÃo hà divisÃo territorial para evitar aglomeraÃÃes do esforÃo de pesca em uma mesma regiÃo. As capturas sÃo realizadas com o uso de artes de pesca (legais e ilegais) nÃo seletivas e embarcaÃÃes de diferentes portes, ocorrendo o constante descumprimento das medidas regulatÃrias de uso e acesso existentes. O sistema de comercializaÃÃo nÃo beneficia o pescador, sendo parte do lucro destinada a um intermediÃrio. Na prÃtica, o acesso ao recurso à livre, originando um regime de acesso irrestrito, em que hà geraÃÃo de externalidades negativas e levando à sobre-explotaÃÃo do recurso. Constatou-se diferenÃa entre as distribuiÃÃes de comprimento nos setores amostrados, havendo maior ocorrÃncia de indivÃduos juvenis e prÃ-recrutas no setor raso (SR) e de indivÃduos maiores no setor intermediÃrio (SI). As curvas de seletividade revelam que no SR o valor do L50 à 12% menor que o tamanho mÃnimo legal, enquanto no SI, à maior. Verificou-se tambÃm que no SR 86% das capturas correspondem a indivÃduos jovens e prÃ-recrutas, enquanto no SI, essa porcentagem cai para 26%. As biomassas mÃdias (Bm) calculadas para o SR e o SI sÃo constituÃdas, respectivamente, em 98% e 55% por indivÃduos menores que o permitido. No SR, um aumento de 13% no valor do L50 faz com que atinja o tamanho mÃnimo legal, incrementando a biomassa em 79%. TambÃm um aumento de 21% no L50 o eleva ao tamanho mÃnimo Ãtimo (80 mm), havendo um incremento de 84% na biomassa. Como as populaÃÃes brasileiras de lagosta sÃo metapopulaÃÃes fechadas, um plano de gestÃo abrangente que inclua medidas para mitigar as externalidades negativas como a criaÃÃo de uma TAC (Captura Total PermissÃvel), tambÃm o aumento no tamanho mÃnimo de captura, aliado à eliminaÃÃo da sobrepesca de crescimento deve ser benÃfico para aumentar os estoques de lagosta, assim como para elevar as capturas em peso. / The spiny lobsters present a great importance in national fish landings, especially in Cearà state. Represented by the species Panulirus argus and Panulirus laevicauda, both pecies in a overfishing situation, it is necessary a recast of the current management system to ensure the sustainability of their fishery. An analysis of current resource management was taken and the consequences of the variation in composition of catches by length at depths of 0-10 m (shallow region) and 30-50 m (intermediary region), from on board sampling and Jonesâlength-based cohort analysis. It was found that there is no territorial division to avoid agglomeration of fishing effort in the same region. The catch has been taken using fishing gears (legal and illegal) non selective and vessels with different sizes, occurring constant noncompliance of use and access to regulatory measures. The marketing system does not benefit the fisherman, being part of the profit destined to a middleman. In practice, the access to the resource is open, originating a system of unrestricted access, in which there is negative externality generation and leading to over-exploitation of the resource. It was found a difference between the length distributions in the sampled regions, with higher occurrence of juveniles and pre-recruits in the shallow region (SR) and larger individuals in the intermediary region (IR). The selection curves reveal that in the SR the value of L50 is 12% smaller than the minimum legal size, while the IR is greater. It was also found that in the SR 86% of catches correspond to juveniles and pre-recruits, while in IR, this percentage decreases to 26%. The mean biomasses (Bm) estimated to SR and IR are constituted in 98% and 55% by smaller individuals than permitted, respectively. In SR, an increase of 13% in the value of L50 makes it achieve the minimum legal size, increasing biomass by 79%. Also an increase of 21% in the L50 elevates the optimal minimum size (80 mm), with an increase of 84% in biomass. As Brazilian lobsterâs populations are closed metapopulations, a comprehensive management plan that includes measures to mitigate negative externalities such as the creation of a TAC (Total Allowable Catch), also the increase of the minimum catch size combined with the elimination of growth overfishing should be beneficial to increase the stocks of lobster, as well as to increase the catch by weight.

Este trabalho desenvolve um método de seleção de fronteiras para Análise de Ciclo de Vida (ACV) de sistemas que emitem componentes tóxicos. Isto envolve o desenvolvimento de um modelo de predição de concentração e dose de poluentes emitidos de chaminés, que tem a vantagem de ser simples e não requerer grande número de dados de entrada. Esse modelo e mais os dados de valoração econômica de danos ambientais disponíveis na literatura, compõem o modelo geral de estimativa de custos devido à emissão de poluentes, ou seja, a Análise de Custos em Ciclo de Vida (ACCV). O modelo geral é então usado para definir as fronteiras do sistema de ACCV. Demonstra-se a aplicação do novo método em um ciclo de vida hipotético de produção de celulose. / This work develops a method for Boundary Selection (BS) for Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) of systems with stacks emitting toxics compounds. The new approach involves the development of a model of concentrations and dosage of pollutants in the vicinity of emission source that is simple and non-intensive data is required. This model plus impact costs estimations available at environmental economic studies, comprise the general model of Life Cycle Cost Analysis (LCCA) based on exposure. This general model is then used in the Boundary Selection in LCCA. A demonstration of the application of the model is performed to a hypothetical inventory system of a pulp mill.

O Sistema Único de Saúde no Brasil (SUS) proporciona a incorporação de muitas tecnologias na área médica e, por conseguinte, pode estar exercendo um papel indireto na produção de conhecimento que não está sendo considerado como uma de suas qualidades. Objetivo: analisar se a incorporação de tecnologias pelo Sistema Único de Saúde no Brasil, mais especificamente fármacos, está associada a um aumento da produção de conhecimento científico nacional sobre estas tecnologias. Material e métodos: Trata-se de um estudo descritivo onde foram selecionados alguns fármacos distribuídos pelo Ministério da Saúde. Utilizando o PubMed analisou-se a produção de conhecimento no Brasil e em outros países do mundo sobre estas tecnologias. Comparou-se a posição do Brasil no ranking da produção científica mundial nos 3 anos antes da incorporação dos fármacos pelo SUS com a posição do Brasil no 4º, 5º e 6º anos após a incorporação destas tecnologias. Esta comparação foi feita utilizando teste não paramétrico de Wilcoxon. Resultados: a posição do Brasil no ranking da produção científica das tecnologias farmacológicas melhora para 70 das 90 tecnologias avaliadas. A posição geral média do Brasil passa de 68º para 45º após a incorporação (p < 0,0001). Conclusão: a incorporação de tecnologias farmacológicas pelo SUS está associada a um aumento da produção de conhecimento nacional sobre estas tecnologias / The Brazilian National Health System (SUS) is responsible for the incorporation of many health technologies, and thus, it could be having an indirect function in the scientific production that has not been considered as one of its qualities. Objective: to evaluate if the technologies incorporation by SUS is associated with an increment in national scientific production about those technologies. Material and methods: This is a descriptive study where it was selected some medications (pharmacologic technologies) that are offered by SUS. The PubMed database was used for the search of Brazilian and other countries scientific production about these technologies. The Brazilian international ranking position in the 3 years before SUS incorporation was compared with the position in the 4th, 5th and 6th years after the incorporation. Wilcoxon nonparametric test was used to perform this comparison. Results: the Brazilian international ranking position improves for 70 of the 90 technologies evaluated. The mean Brazilian ranking position went from 68th to 45th after incorporation (p < 0.0001). Conclusion: the incorporation of pharmacologic technologies by SUS is associated with an increment in the national knowledge production about these technologies

Thesis (MBA.) -- University of Limpopo, 2016 / The objective of this study was to determine the environmental impact of agricultural inputs, to know if the environmental impacts of agricultural inputs have environmental costs, and to know who bears the environmental costs of agricultural inputs. Using a purposive sampling method, the researcher studied six farms from Chief Albert Luthuli Municipal area, Mpumalanga. The research design for the study was a mix of qualitative and quantitative research approaches. Data collection was from primary and secondary sources. Data was collected from the six farmers in Albert Lithulu, in addition secondary data was collected from the archives of Index Mundi, the University of Pretoria, the US EPA and the World Bank. Using a mix of correlation and regression analysis, findings from the study provided an answer to the three research objectives. Findings from the analysis of correlation and regression indicated that agricultural input (fertilizer, used in this study) does affect the environment; it causes an agricultural induced emission of greenhouse gases (nitrous oxide and methane). Furthermore, findings from analysis of potential environmental costs of environmental impacts (methane and nitrous oxide) showed that agricultural inputs have social costs for South Africa. Furthermore, the final findings in this study showed that the environmental costs from agricultural inputs are born by the victims. Consequently the study recommends additional environmental regulation to enable farmers internalise some of the environmental costs of agricultural inputs that are born by victims. Further research is suggested to determine the model that may be used to internalise environmental costs of agricultural inputs back to the farms. Key Words: farms, environmental costs, agricultural inputs, externalities

Visa是全球第一大的國際支付卡組織，然其自1970年成立至今，不過短短30年，這之間組織成長的速度令人驚嘆，但由從前組織成長理論似乎無法解釋其中所隱含的經濟意義，因此本研究嘗試以新經濟現象中的網路外部性理論來觀察解釋Visa組織成長的過程-隨著使用者的增加，整個系統的價值也隨之增加，且在不斷的循環自我增強下，整個系統呈現非線性的快速成長。 此外，Visa組織的創辦者Dee Hock(1998)在「亂序」一書中提及Visa是個亂序（處於混亂和秩序之間）的組織，因此本研究亦由混沌理論的觀點觀察Visa組織的運作方式，瞭解其是如何進行自我組織、自我成長、自我演化，又這樣一個龐大的價值交換體系，在快速成長擴充的過程中又是如何管理運作的。 最後，本研究就網路外部性和混沌理論觀點下所觀察到的現象進行進一步之比較探討，找出其中相關之處，觀察兩者間是否有互相強化之關連，發覺Visa此一混沌邊緣組織的運作方式強化了其網路外部性的效果，也更加造就了Visa的成功。

This thesis consists of three papers that examine Marshallian sources of growthand interdependent location of Swedish firms and households. Paper [I] examines the impact of static and dynamic knowledge externalitiesand their impact on Swedish market operating firms growth pattern between1997 and 2005. The three types of externalities are: (i) Marshall-Arrow-Romer(MAR), (ii) Jacobs, and (iii) Porter. My empirical findings for the 40 industriescan briefly be summarized in the following points: (i) static MAR, Jacobsand/or Porter externalities are present in all but nine industries; (ii) except for five cases all industries are exposed to one or more of the MAR, Jacobs and/orPorter type of dynamic externalities; (iii) contrary to previous studies but inline with theoretical predictions, we do find positive and significant effects forstatic as well as dynamic Jacobs externalities. Paper [II] focuses on the presence of agglomeration economies in the form of labor pooling and educational matching and their impact on economic growth in Swedish manufacturing and service industries from 1997 to 2005. To accomplish this I employ a translog production function that enables me to decompose the total agglomeration elasticities into returns that accrue to: direct agglomeration effects, an indirect effect of agglomeration at given input levels, a cross agglomeration effect of matching on labor pooling and vice versa. Household services is the single industry where both the labor pooling and matching hypothesis is supported by our data. Publishing is the sole instance of betterinput usage due to matching consistent with the theoretical claim. Paper [III] studies the interdependent location choices of households and firms expressed as population and employment in Swedish municipalities. Using a model of the Carlino-Mills type to investigate the impact of various location attributes such as differences in public revenue and spending patterns, accessibility to jobs and potential workforce, quality of the labor pool, concentration ofcommercial, private and public services. The findings suggest that fiscal factors significantly alters the impact of housing and accessibility attributes compared to exiting studies on Swedish data. Another finding, in line with previous studies, indicate that there is a significant degree of inertia in household and firm location choices.

This thesis consists of five papers. Paper [1] analyzes one possible way of replacing dynamic Pigouvian taxes by a static approximation of such taxes from the point of view of social accounting. The idea is to approximate a Pigouvian emission tax by using the instantaneous marginal willingness to pay to reduce the stock of pollution. If this approximation is close enough to the correct Pigouvian tax it will be useful for at least two reasons: (i) it brings the economy close to the socially optimal solution; and (ii) it provides information relevant for social accounting by closely approximating the value of additions to the stock of pollution. Paper [2] analyzes the welfare effects of an agreement between countries to slightly increase their emission taxes. The results indicate that such an agreement need not necessarily increase the global welfare level, even if each individual country has set its prereform emission tax to be lower than the marginal social cost of pollution. Paper [3] provides an economic framework for analyzing the global warming problem, emphasizing the use of forests as a means of carbon sequestration. We explore the difference between the decentralized economy and the socially optimal resource allocation, and discuss the appropriate tax system required to implement the first best optimum. Paper [4] incorporates the uncertainty involved in the production of nuclear energy into a dynamic general equilibrium growth model. We compare the resource allocation in the decentralized economy with the socially optimal resource allocation and design the dynamic Pigouvian taxes that make the decentralized economy reproduce the socially optimal resource allocation. Paper [5] treats externalities from nuclear power in a dynamic differential game framework involving two countries, which differ with regard to their nuclear technology. The model is solved numerically, where one country is considered relatively safe and the other relatively less safe. / <p>Härtill 5 delarbeten.</p> / digitalisering@umu