The study presented here was firstly to investigate the physiochemical properties of native sago starch (obtained from Metroxylon sp. and designated as sago INA), in comparison with those of Metroxylon sago starch obtained from a different source, sago starch derived from Arenga sp. palms, wheat, corn, and tapioca starches. The properties analysed were chemical composition, total starch content, apparent amylose content, pasting properties, endothermic thermal behaviour, starch paste clarity, freeze-thaw stability, hardness of gel, and microscopic structure of the granules. The results obtained indicated that sago INA starch sample contained less fat and protein, compared to cereal starches. The sago starch sample had larger sized granules and had a more transparent paste. The gels of the starch were harder, and showed a relatively better stability to freeze-thaw treatment. The other part of the study was extrusion of sago INA starch both in the absence and presence of enzyme by utilising a response surface design. In the absence of the enzyme, the experiment was conducted to establish the extrusion process conditions including moisture contents, melt temperature, and screw speed. The extruded products were then analysed for degree of molecular degradation, light microscopic structure, reducing sugars of the water soluble materials, water absorption index, water solubility index, enzyme susceptibility, and gelatinisation endothermic energy. Increased mechanical and thermal energy input received by the products in the extruder resulted in a significant degradation of the molecular weight of the macromolecules. Light photomicrographs also suggested that the granule structures of the extrudates have been reshaped. All extrudate samples had a very low gelatinisation endothermic energy compared to its native starch. The specific mechanical energy received by the products in the extruder was calculated and related to the process variables. The possibility of using the products in food application was also discussed. / Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)

No / Hot melt extrusion is a continuous process with wide industrial applicability. Till current date, there have been no reports on the formulation of extrudates for topical treatment of dermatological diseases. The aim of the present work was to prepare and characterize medicated hot melt extrudates based on Soluplus polymer and nicotinamide, and to explore their applicability in acne treatment. The extrudates were characterized using DSC, FTIR, XRD, and DVS. The extrudates were also tested for their skin adhesion potential, ability to deposit nicotinamide in different skin layers, and their clinical efficacy in acne patients. The 10% nicotinamide extrudates exhibited amorphous nature which was reserved during storage, with no chemical interaction between nicotinamide and Soluplus. Upon contrasting the skin adhesion and drug deposition of extrudates and nicotinamide gel, it was evident that the extrudates displayed significantly higher adhesion and drug deposition reaching 4.8 folds, 5.3 folds, and 4.3 folds more in the stratum corneum, epidermis and dermis, respectively. Furthermore, the extrudates significantly reduced the total number of acne lesions in patients by 61.3% compared to 42.14% with the nicotinamide gel. Soluplus extrudates are promising topical drug delivery means for the treatment of dermatological diseases.

Orientador: Fernanda Paula Collares Queiroz / Tese (doutorado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Faculdade de Engenharia de Alimentos / Made available in DSpace on 2018-08-18T11:02:37Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 CastroTerezan_VaninaHelende_D.pdf: 2092752 bytes, checksum: aa76b9dfefe523915640c52fb45ac5e3 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2011 / Resumo: Neste trabalho, foram desenvolvidos, pelo processo de extrusão termoplástica, salgadinhos expandidos à base de farinha de milho enriquecidos com a incorporação de farinha de quinoa, visando o aumento do valor nutricional. O milho é muito utilizado na fabricação de salgadinhos pelo fato de expandir com facilidade. A quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa) é um pseudocereal de importante potencial agronômico e alto valor nutricional, apresentando elevado teor de proteína, com expressivos níveis do aminoácido lisina. As matérias-primas foram caracterizadas quanto às propriedades físicas, químicas e nutricionais. Para verificar quais parâmetros influenciariam as propriedades dos salgadinhos expandidos, primeiramente foi realizado um delineamento fatorial fracionado 25-1, cujas variáveis independentes foram: (i) umidade inicial da amostra; (ii) teor de farinha de quinoa; (iii) temperatura da 4ª zona do extrusor; (iv) temperatura da 5ª zona do extrusor e (v) velocidade da rosca. As variáveis dependentes avaliadas foram: (i) índice de expansão, (ii) dureza e (iii) lisina biodisponível. As variáveis que influenciaram significativamente pelo menos uma das respostas, considerando p<0,20, foram: (i) umidade inicial da amostra, (ii) teor de farinha de quinoa e (iii) temperatura da 5ª zona do extrusor. Na sequência, foi executado um Delineamento Composto Central Rotacional (DCCR), com essas três variáveis independentes, alterando as faixas de estudos em função do impacto que as mesmas apresentaram sobre as respostas. Não foi possível gerar modelos matemáticos válidos que descrevessem a tendência da dureza e da lisina biodisponível nas faixas de variação estudadas (umidade de 15 a 20%, teor de farinha de quinoa entre 15 e 50% e temperatura da 5ª zona do extrusor de 110 a 160ºC). O aumento destas três variáveis independentes promoveu a redução do índice de expansão. Pela análise de superfície de resposta, observou-se que as condições para a produção de salgadinhos extrudados com alta expansão foram: umidade inicial da amostra em 17,5%, adição de 22% de farinha de quinoa e temperatura de 110ºC na 5ª zona do extrusor. Nestas condições, foram produzidos salgadinhos expandidos apenas de milho (padrão) e salgadinhos com incorporação de 22 e 43% de quinoa, que foram caracterizados, aromatizados e submetidos a uma avaliação sensorial de aceitação e intenção de compra. Os salgadinhos expandidos de milho e quinoa apresentaram dureza e diâmetros similares aos disponíveis no mercado, indicando que as condições do processo de extrusão foram adequadamente escolhidas. Do ponto de vista nutricional, os salgadinhos com quinoa apresentaram maior teor de proteína, aminoácidos essenciais (treonina, cisteína, isoleucina, lisina e triptofano) e lisina biodisponível, em relação ao salgadinho apenas de milho, mostrando a viabilidade da adição de farinha de quinoa em produtos à base de milho para aumentar o seu valor nutricional. O salgadinho expandido com 22% farinha de quinoa apresentou boa aceitação e alta intenção de compra, enquanto o salgadinho com 43% não foi bem aceito, por apresentar menor expansão, escurecimento e sabor residual / Abstract: In this work, expanded snacks made from corn flour enriched by incorporating quinoa flour with the aim of increasing the nutritional value, were developed and processed by thermoplastic extrusion. Corn is widely used in snack production since it expands easily. Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa) is a pseudocereal with important agronomic potential and a high nutritional value, containing an elevated protein content and expressive amount of the amino acid lysine. The raw materials were characterized with respect to their physical, chemical and nutritional properties. Initially a 25-1 Fractional Factorial Design was used to determine which parameters influenced the properties of the expanded snacks, the independent variables being: (i) initial moisture content; (ii) amount of quinoa flour; (iii) temperature of the 4th extruder zone; (iv) temperature of the 5th extruder zone and (v) screw speed. The dependent variables evaluated were: (i) expansion ratio; (ii) hardness and (iii) available lysine. The independent variables that significantly influenced at least one of the responses, considering p<0.20, were: (i) initial moisture content; (ii) amount of quinoa flour; and (iii) temperature of the 5th extruder zone. In sequence, a Central Composite Rotatable Design (CCRD) was carried out with the above three independent variables, altering the range of the study considering the impact they had on the responses. It was not possible to obtain valid mathematical models to describe the trends with respect to hardness and available lysine in the range of variation studied (moisture content from 15 to 20%, quinoa flour content from 15 to 50% and temperature in the 5th extruder zone from 110 to 160ºC). Increases in these three independent variables resulted in a reduction in the expansion ratio. From the analysis of the response surface, it was observed that the conditions required to produce highly expanded extruded snacks were: initial moisture content of 17.5%, addition of 22% of quinoa flour and a temperature of 110ºC in the 5th extruder zone. Under these conditions, expanded snacks were produced with 100% corn (standard) and with the incorporation of 22 and 43% of quinoa flour, and subsequently characterized, aromatized and subjected to a sensory evaluation for acceptance and purchasing intention. The expanded corn and quinoa snacks showed values for hardness and diameter similar to those available on the market, indicating that the extrusion process conditions were suitably chosen. From the nutritional point of view, the snacks with the incorporation of quinoa showed higher protein and essential amino acid (threonine, cysteine, isoleucine, lysine and tryptophan) contents and available lysine, as compared to the 100% corn snacks, demonstrating the feasibility of adding quinoa flour to corn products to increase their nutritional value. The expanded snack with 22% of quinoa flour was well accepted and showed high purchasing intention, whereas the snack with 43% was not well accepted because it showed less expansion, darkening and an aftertaste / Doutorado / Tecnologia de Alimentos / Doutor em Tecnologia de Alimentos

[ES] Las microalgas son organismos unicelulares fotosintéticos microscópicos que se encuentran en gran variedad de ambientes y son muy eficientes en la transformación de energía solar en biomasa. Los estudios realizados hasta el momento hacen referencia a posibles beneficios de la incorporación de microalgas en la dieta, por la mejora del sistema cardiovascular, las propiedades adelgazantes y energizantes, capacidad antioxidante, o la reducción del colesterol y los triglicéridos. La forma más habitual de consumir las microalgas es como suplemento dietético en forma de tabletas, cápsulas o polvo. La incorporación de biomasa de microalgas en productos tradicionales se ha enfrentado al reto de la aparición de colores verdes fuertes, así como su consistencia pulverulenta que puede afectar la textura y percepción del producto. Todos estos aspectos constituyen las principales áreas de mejora para conseguir un mayor grado de aceptación de productos con microalgas, y son la base del reto de este proyecto. El objetivo de la presente tesis doctoral fue el desarrollo de nuevos productos alimentarios incorporando las propiedades nutricionales de la biomasa de microalgas, incrementando o mejorando con ello, las propiedades nutricionales del alimento original. Para conseguir este objetivo se evaluaron a nivel fisicoquímico, reológico y textural, la incorporación de diferentes especies de microalgas (Arthrospira platensis (Spirulina), Chlorella vulgaris, Dunaliella salina y Nannochloropsis gaditana) en distintas matrices alimentarias (productos horneados, emulsiones y extrusionados). Por otra parte, se evaluó y caracterizó la incorporación de las microalgas utilizando diferentes tecnologías como la impresión 3D o la extrusión. Además de cómo afecta la incorporación de las microalgas a los productos obtenidos, se evaluaron los aspectos nutricionales de su incorporación, en cuanto al aporte de minerales y su biodisponibilidad. Las propiedades reológicas de las masas y emulsiones enriquecidas con microalgas (Spirulina, Chlorella y Dunaliella) indicaron que su comportamiento viscoelástico fue modificado y mejorado, mostrando características aptas para este tipo de productos. La adición de microalgas (Spirulina y Chlorella) a las masas utilizadas para la impresión 3D de galletas y snacks, permitió una mejor extrusión o impresión de éstas, obteniendo muestras impresas en 3D de forma cilíndrica, más precisas en cuanto a sus dimensiones con respecto a la estructura cilíndrica diseñada. Además, las muestras impresas presentaron mayor estabilidad y resistencia, antes y después del proceso de horneado comparadas con la muestra control. Para los productos horneados, tanto para las rosquilletas como los snacks impresos en 3D, la adición de microalgas (Spirulina y Chlorella) permitió mayor estabilidad en términos de textura. Ligeros cambios en los parámetros fisicoquímicos y de expansión se produjeron por la adición de Spirulina y Chlorella en los productos extrusionados. Además, los extrusionados enriquecidos con Nannochloropsis, mostraron parámetros similares a los de la muestra de control. Todos los productos presentaron colores luminosos y apariencias innovadoras y atractivas. En cuanto a los minerales, se observó un aumento de P, K, Ca, Na, Mg, Fe y Se con la adición de Spirulina y Chlorella, junto con el aumento de la concentración adicionada de microalgas. Siguiendo la normativa sobre etiquetado nutricional de los alimentos, el enriquecimiento con microalgas en rosquilletas se puede clasificar como un alimento "rico en hierro (Fe)". De igual forma, las rosquilletas y galletas enriquecidas con microalgas pueden considerarse un alimento "alto en selenio (Se)". Además, la incorporación de Spirulina y Chlorella en las formulaciones de galletas, permitió una mayor bioaccesibilidad del contenido de P, K, Ca, Mg, Fe, Zn y Se para la absorción en el cuerpo comparado con las muestras control. / [CAT] Les microalgues són organismes unicellulars fotosintètics microscòpics. Són molt eficients a l'hora de transformar l'energia solar en biomassa. Els estudis realitzats fins ara fan referència a possibles beneficis de la incorporació de microalgues en la dieta per produir una millora del sistema cardiovascular, per presentar propietats per aprimar i donar energia, per mostrar capacitat antioxidant o per afavorir una reducció del colesterol i els triglicèrids. La forma més habitual de consumir microalgues és com a suplement dietètic en forma de tauleta, càpsula o en pols. La incorporació de biomassa de microalgues en productes tradicionals s'ha afrontat al repte de l'aparició d'un color verd fosc i d'una consistència polsosa que pot afectar a la textura i, per tant, a la percepció del producte. Aquests aspectes constituïxen les principals àrees de millora per aconseguir un major grau d'acceptació de productes amb microalgues i són la base del repte d'aquest projecte. L'objectiu d'aquesta tesi doctoral és el desenvolupament de nous productes alimentaris que incorporen les propietats nutricionals de la biomassa de microalgues, de manera que s'incrementen o es milloren les propietats nutricionals de l'aliment original. Per aconseguir aquest objectiu s'avaluaren a escala fisicoquímica, reològica i de textura la incorporació de diferents espècies de microalgues (Arthrospira platensis (Spirulina), Chlorella vulgaris, Dunaliella salina i Nannochloropsis gaditana) en diferents matrius alimentàries (productes fornejats, emulsions i extrudits). D'altra banda, s'avaluà i caracteritzà la incorporació de les microalgues utilitzant diferents tecnologies com la impressió en 3D o l'extrusió. A banda de valorar com afecta la incorporació de microalgues als productes elaborats, s'avaluaren els aspectes nutricionals, pel que fa a l'aportació i biodisponibilitat de minerals. Les propietats reològiques de les masses i emulsions enriquides amb microalgues (Spirulina, Chlorella i Dunaliella) indicaren que el seu comportament viscoelàstic fou modificat i millorat, de tal manera que mostrà característiques aptes per aquest tipus de productes. L'addició de microalgues (Spirulina i Chlorella) en les masses utilitzades per a la impressió 3D de galetes i snacks permeté una millor impressió, ja que s'obtingueren mostres impreses de forma cilíndrica amb unes dimensions més precises respecte a l'estructura cilíndrica dissenyada. A més, les mostres impreses presentaren una major estabilitat i resistència abans i després del procés de fornejat en comparació amb la mostra control. Respecte als productes fornejats, l'addició de microalgues (Spirulina i Chlorella) a les rosquilletes i els snacks impresos en 3D permeté una major estabilitat en termes de textura. Lleugers canvis als paràmetres fisicoquímics i d'expansió es produïren per l'addició d'Spirulina i Chlorella en els productes extrudits. A més, els extrudits que foren enriquits amb Nannochloropsis mostraren paràmetres similars als de la mostra control. Tots els productes presentaren colors lluminosos i aparences innovadores i atractives. Pel que fa als minerals, s'observà un augment de P, K, Ca, Na, Mg, Fe i Se quan s'afegí Spirulina i Chlorella, directament relacionat amb l'augment de la concentració de microalgues. Seguint la normativa sobre etiquetatge nutricional dels aliments, l'enriquiment amb microalgues en rosquilletes ens permet classificar-les com a aliment "ric en ferro (Fe)". De la mateixa manera, les rosquilletes i galetes enriquides amb microalgues poden considerar-se un aliment "alt en seleni (Se)". A més a més, la incorporació de Spirulina i Chlorella en les formulacions de galetes, permeté una major bioaccessibiltat del contingut de P, K, Ca, Mg, Fe, Zn i Se comparat amb les mostres control. / [EN] Microalgae are microscopic unicellular and photosynthetic organisms that can be found in a wide variety of environments. These microorganisms are very efficient when transforming solar energy into biomass, due to their cellular structure, which is completely submerged in an aqueous medium, forming an adequate surface for the exchange of nutrients and gases. Microalgae compounds are now known to exhibit cardioprotective, immunomodulatory, anti-proliferative, anti-inflammatory, cognitive, neurobehavioral and antimicrobial properties, amongst others. Researchers have shown possible benefits of the incorporation of microalgae in the diet so far. The most common way to consume microalgae is as a dietary supplement in the form of tablets, capsules or powder. The incorporation of microalgae biomass in traditional products has faced the challenge of the appearance of strong green colours, as well as its powdery consistency that can affect the texture and perception of the product. All these aspects constitute the main areas for improvement the development of microalgae-based products, and they are the challenges faced of this project. The main objective of this PhD Thesis was the development of novel food products incorporating the nutritional properties of microalgae biomass, thereby increasing or improving the nutritional properties of the original food matrix. To achieve this goal, the effect of the addition of different species of microalgae (Arthrospira platensis (Spirulina), Chlorella vulgaris, Dunaliella salina and Nannochloropsis gaditana) on the physicochemical, rheological and textural properties of different food matrices (baked products, emulsions and extrudates) was evaluated. Furthermore, the effect of the incorporation of microalgae using different technologies such as 3D printing or extrusion to obtain food products was studied. In addition, how the incorporation of microalgae affects the nutritional aspects of the food products in terms of the contribution of minerals and their bioavailability was also evaluated. The rheological properties of doughs, batters and emulsions enriched with microalgae (Spirulina, Chlorella and Dunaliella) indicated that their viscoelastic behaviour was modified and improved, showing characteristics suitable for this type of products. The addition of microalgae (Spirulina and Chlorella) to the doughs and batters used for the 3D printing of cookies and snacks, allowed a better extrusion or printing behaviour. This allowed obtaining cylindrical 3D printed samples, more precise in terms of their dimensions with respect to the designed cylindrical structure. In addition, the 3D microalgae-printed sample structures presented greater stability and resistance, before and after the baking process compared to the control sample. For baked products, both for breadsticks and 3D printed snacks, the addition of microalgae (Spirulina and Chlorella) allowed greater stability in terms of texture. Slight changes in the physicochemical and expansion parameters were produced by the addition of Spirulina and Chlorella in the extruded products. In addition, the extrudates enriched with Nannochloropsis, showed similar parameters to those of the control sample. Microalgae-enriched obtained products showed bright colours with appealing appearances. Regarding minerals, an increase in P, K, Ca, Na, Mg, Fe and Se was observed with the addition of Spirulina and Chlorella, along the increase of concentration of microalgae addition. Following the regulations on nutrition labelling for food stuffs, breadstick enrichment with microalgae are a food "high in iron (Fe)" In the same way, breadsticks and cookies enriched with microalgae can be considered a "high in selenium (Se)" food. Going a step further, Spirulina and Chlorella vulgaris incorporation in cookie formulations allowed for greater bioaccessibility of P, K, Ca, Mg, Fe, Zn, and Se content for absorption in the body than control cookies. / Uribe Wandurraga, ZN. (2020). Microalgae as novel ingredients for the formulation of food products [Tesis doctoral]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/158743 / TESIS