Tesis por compendio / [ES] La presente tesis doctoral está basada en el aprovechamiento de residuos de biomasa para la obtención de celulosa y otros compuestos de interés con el objetivo de desarrollar estructuras aplicables en el envasado alimentario. El uso masivo de los plásticos convencionales derivados del petróleo genera una cantidad ingente de residuos debido a su mínima degradabilidad y baja eficacia de las estrategias de reciclaje actuales, provocando así su acumulación en los ecosistemas terrestres y marinos. En este contexto, el uso de biopolímeros (y más en concreto, la celulosa) juega un papel crucial puesto que ofrecen una alternativa abundante, renovable y biodegradable que permite reducir y reemplazar el uso de estos materiales tradicionales. Para ello, se ha seleccionado como fuente de celulosa los residuos de hojas de Posidonia oceanica (planta acuática endémica del mar Mediterráneo) debido a su abundancia y problemática asociada: sus hojas se acumulan en las playas generando mal olor, teniendo las autoridades locales que retirarlas sin un uso específico posterior. Por tanto, además de proponer una solución a un problema de gestión, el aprovechamiento de dicho residuo está en línea con las políticas actuales de economía circular y "residuo cero" que permiten una utilización más sostenible de los recursos naturales. De esta forma, la valorización de residuos de biomasa respecto a otras fuentes tradicionales de celulosa como la madera u otros cultivos específicos es beneficiosa por ambas partes. En la primera parte de la tesis, se demuestra el potencial de las hojas de P. oceanica como fuente de celulosa (¿30% contenido). Dicha celulosa, así como otras dos fracciones celulósicas intermedias se utilizaron para formar films mediante filtrado a vacío y como aditivos de refuerzo en matrices de almidón comercial mediante mezclado en fundido y prensa. En paralelo, tanto la celulosa como las fracciones celulósicas de interés fueron sometidas a un tratamiento ácido para la obtención de nanocristales. La presencia de compuestos adicionales recalcitrantes tuvo un efecto positivo en las propiedades de estos, cuya obtención fue escalada a nivel planta piloto para la producción de bandejas mediante termoformado de mezclas con almidón. Por último, se obtuvieron extractos bioactivos mediante técnicas en base acuosa (ultrasonidos y calor) para una valorización integral del residuo de hojas de P. oceanica con el objetivo de reducir el uso de disolventes orgánicos. En una segunda parte de la tesis, se aplicaron los protocolos simplificados de extracción de celulosa a otros residuos de biomasa como los sarmientos de vid, la paja de arroz y la cáscara de arroz. Cabe destacar que se purificaron con éxito fracciones y nanocristales celulósicos en todas las biomasas evaluadas. Esto demostró que es posible simplificar los procesos de extracción de celulosa para disminuir costes y aumentar la sostenibilidad de la metodología pese a la posible heterogeneidad de la(s) fuente(s) de partida. En la última parte de la tesis, estos nanocristales celulósicos se utilizaron como material de partida para la formación de aerogeles mediante un proceso de liofilización. Para paliar la baja resistencia mecánica y al agua de estos materiales, se diseñó un método patentado de inmersión en una disolución de ácido poliláctico (PLA) que recubría el aerogel celulósico mejorando tanto su resistencia mecánica como su resistencia al agua. Estos aerogeles puramente biopoliméricos fueron ampliamente caracterizados mediante distintas metodologías, destacando la microscopía Raman y confocal. Finalmente, se obtuvieron aerogeles bioactivos mediante la incorporación de los extractos de P. oceanica más prometedores (previamente obtenidos y caracterizados). Por tanto, la presente tesis muestra la valorización de residuos de biomasa mediante protocolos simplificados para el desarrollo de estructuras de envasado alimentario. / [CA] La present tesi doctoral està basada amb l'aprofitament de residus de biomassa per a l'obtenció de cel·lulosa i altres compostos d'interès amb l'objectiu de desenvolupar estructures aplicables a l'envasat alimentari. L'ús massiu de plàstics convencionals derivats del petroli genera una quantitat ingent de residus degut a la seua mínima degradabilitat i baixa eficàcia de les estratègies de reciclatge actuals, provocant d'aquesta manera la seua accumlació als eocisistemes terrestres i marins. Dins d'aquest context, l'ús de biopolímers (i més concretament, la cel·lulosa) juga un paper crucial ja que oferix una alternativa abundant, renovable i biodegradable que permet reduir i reemplaçar l'ús d'aquests materials tradicionals. Per a aquest fet, s'ha seleccionat com a font de cel·lulosa els residus de fulles de Posidonia oceanica (planta aquàtica endèmica del mar Mediterrani) degut a la seua abundància i a la problemàtica associada: les seues fulles s'acumulen a les platges generant mal olor i tenint que retirar-les les autoritats locals sense u ús posterior. Per tant, a més de proposar un solució a un problema de gestió, l'aprofitament del residu en qüestió està en la línia de les polítiques actuals d'economia circular i "residu zero" que permeten una utilització més sostenible dels recursos naturals. D'aquesta manera, la valorització de residus de biomassa respecte d'altres fonts tradicionals de cel·lulosa com la fusta i altres cultius específics és beneficiosa per ambdues parts. En la primera part de la tesi, es demostra el potencial de les fulles de P. Oceanica com a font de cel·lulosa (30% del contingut) al purificar-se amb èxit mitjançant l'aplicació d'un protocol convencional. Aquesta cel·lulosa, així com altres dues fraccions cel·lulòsiques intermitges es van emprar per a formar pel·lícules mijançant mescla en fos i premsa. Paral·lelament, tant la cel·lulosa com les fraccions cel·lulòsiques d'interès van ser sotmeses a un tractament àcid per a l'obtenció de nanocristals. La presència de compostos adicionals recalcitrants va tenir un efecte positiu en les seues propietats. La obtenció resultant va ser escalada a nivell de planta pilot per a la producció de safates a través termoformat de mescla amb almidó. Per últim, es van obtenir extractes bioactius amb tècniques amb base d'aigua (ultrasons i calor) per a la valorització integral del residu de fulles de P. Oceanica amb l'objectiu de reduir la utilització de dissolvents orgànics. En la segona part de la tesi es van aplicar els protocols simplificats d'extracció de cel·lulosa a altres residus de biomasa com els sarments de vinya, la palla d'arròs i la closca de l'arròs. Hem de destacar que es van purificar amb èxit les fraccions i els nanocristals cel·lulòsics en totes les biomasses avaluades. Es va demostrar que és possible simplificar els procesos d'extracció de cel·lulosa per a disminuir costos i augmentar la sostenibilitat de la metodologia malgrat la possible heterogeneïtat de le(s) font(s) del punt de partida. En la última part de la tesi, aquestos nanocristals cel·lulòsics es va emprar com a material de partida per a la formació de aerogels mitjançant un procés de liofilització. Per a paliar la baixa resistència mecànica i l'aigua d'aquests materials, es va dissenyar un mètode patentat de immersió en una dissolució d'àcid polilàctic (PLA) que recobria l'aerogel cel·lulòsic millorant tant la seua resistència mecànica com la seua resistència a l'aigua. Aquestos aerogels purament biopolimèrics van ser ampliament caracteritzats a través distintes metodologies, destacant la microscopia Raman i confocal. Finalment, es van obtenir aerogels bioactius mitjançant la incorporació dels extractes de P. Oceànica més prometedors (prèviament obtinguts i caracteritzats). Per tant, la present tesi mostra la valoració de residus de biomassa mitjançant protocols simplificats per al de / [EN] The following Ph. D thesis is based on the waste biomass valorization for obtaining cellulose and other relevant compounds aimed to develop food packaging structures. The massive use of fossil-fuel derived conventional plastics generates an excessive number of residues due to their low degradation rates and inefficient current recycling strategies, which makes them accumulate in both terrestrial and marine ecosystems. In this context, the use of biopolymers (concretely cellulose) plays a key role in offering an abundant, renewable and biodegradable alternative that allows to reduce and even replace the use of these conventional materials. For this aim, Posidonia oceanica (an endemic aquatic plant from the Mediterranean Sea) dead leaves have been selected as the main cellulose source due to their abundance and problematic associated: dead leaves are accumulated in beaches and seashores causing bad odours and must be removed by local authorities without any further use. Thus, the valorization of this residue provides a solution in line with current circular and "zero-waste" economy policies which enables more sustainable exploitation of natural resources. As a result, waste biomass valorization for obtaining cellulose with regards to other more conventional sources is doubly beneficial. In the first part of the thesis, the potential of P. oceanica leaves as a cellulosic source was shown (¿30% cellulose content) after successfully applying a conventional purification protocol. This cellulose, as well as two intermediate cellulosic fractions (with the presence of additional components such as hemicelluloses and/or lignin), were used for developing films both by vacuum filtration and melt mixing and hot pressing in starch composites. In parallel, both cellulose and cellulosic fractions were submitted to acid treatment in order to obtain nanocrystals, being these protocols upscaled at a pilot-plant level for the development of thermoformed trays by injection moulding. Interestingly, the presence of the aforementioned additional components had a positive effect on their performance. Lastly, water-based extracts were successfully obtained from P. oceanica dead leaves by ultrasounds and hot-water extraction methodologies, providing a complete valorization of the residue with the aim of minimizing the use of organic solvents. In a second part, simplified cellulose extraction protocols were applied to other waste sources such as vine shoots, rice straw and rice husks. Both cellulosic fractions and nanocrystals were successfully purified regardless of the source, being the initial composition (holocellulose, lignin, ashes, lipids and proteins) and the monosaccharide profile the key factors which defined the final properties of the materials (evaluated in film form). In the last part of the thesis, these cellulosic nanocrystals were used for developing aerogels by freeze-drying. In order to overcome their inherent poor mechanical performance and low water resistance, a novel and patented dipping method using polylactic acid (PLA) was designed. These biopolymeric aerogels were broadly characterized by means of several techniques such as Raman and Confocal microscopies. Finally, bioactive aerogels were developed by incorporating some of the most promising P. oceanica bioactive extracts (previously obtained and characterized). Then, the following Ph. D. thesis shows the valorization of several waste biomasses by applying simplified protocols for developing food packaging structures. The presence of additional compounds in the resulting materials has been shown not only to reduce associated costs by increasing the total mass yield but also to present improved performance in comparison to more conventional materials, being in line with current circular economy policies. As a result, a more sustainable and viable alternative for the massively used conventional plastics is proposed. / Benito González, I. (2021). Waste Biomass Valorization for the Production of Cellulosic Fractions of Interest in Food Packaging Applications [Tesis doctoral]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/177358 / TESIS / Compendio

Les nanoparticules d’argent (Ag NPs) sont considérablement utilisées dans l’industrie alimentaire. Elles sont fortement appliquées comme enrobages d’emballages alimentaires afin d’assurer une meilleure qualité des aliments et une plus longue durée de conservation sur les étagères des supermarchés. En revanche, les risques associés aux Ag NPs sont inquiétants. Leurs effets potentiels sur les humains et sur l’environnement suscitent un grand intérêt scientifique. C’est pourquoi il est important de valider des méthodes analytiques pour détecter, caractériser et quantifier les Ag NPs dans la nourriture mise en contact avec ce type de contenant. Les méthodes permettront de mieux comprendre la migration de l'argent vers les aliments directement ingérés par l’humain. La spectrométrie de masse à plasma à couplage inductif en mode particule unique (SP-ICP-MS) est une technique prometteuse pour caractériser et quantifier de petites particules (de quelques nanomètres) à de faibles concentrations (dans l'ordre du ng L-1). Contrairement aux techniques analytiques conventionnelles, telles que les techniques de microscopie et de diffusion de la lumière, le SP-ICP-MS distingue la forme ionique de la forme particulaire de l'analyte. Cette présente étude valide une méthode pour la caractérisation et la quantification des Ag NPs et de l’argent ionique dans deux boissons et trois simulants: jus d'orange, préparation en poudre pour nourrissons, eau Milli-Q, acide acétique à 3% et éthanol à 10%. De plus, une meilleure compréhension du devenir et de la migration de l’argent provenant d'emballages alimentaires nano-activés a pu être obtenue. En effet, les milieux acides et les traitements thermiques ont engendré de plus grands relargages d’argent, sous forme ionique, contrairement aux milieux dits « lipophiles » tels que la préparation pour nourrissons et l’éthanol. En conclusion, ce mémoire nous démontre que les voies de libération des NPs des contenants nano-activés ne sont pas encore très bien comprises. De plus amples études doivent être entreprises afin de pouvoir établir des modèles de migration clairs et afin de mieux comprendre les risques associés à leurs utilisations. / Silver nanoparticles (Ag NPs) are increasingly used in the food industry. They are integrated into coatings of various food packaging to help ensure longer product shelf life. However, the risks associated with Ag NPs are currently not well known and their potential effects on humans are causing growing concern. Furthermore, it is not clear whether NPs have greater or lesser risk than dissolved silver ions or bulk phase Ag. Consequently, it is necessary to detect and to characterize the release of silver from silver-enhanced containers into real food matrices using sensitive analytical techniques that allow one to distinguish between silver ions and nanoparticles. Single particle ICP-MS is a promising technique to count and size small particles at low concentrations. Compared to other conventional instrumentation, it can distinguish between ionic and particulate forms of the analyte. This thesis focused firstly on the validation of an analytical method for the analysis of Ag NPs and ionic silver in three different food simulants (Milli-Q water, 10% ethanol and 3% acetic acid) and in two drinks (orange juice and infant milk formula). A better understanding of the aging and of the migration of silver has been reached in these matrices. Essentially, acidic media caused significant NP oxidation whereas organic macromolecules like lipids, proteins and polysaccharides appeared to increase the stability of the NPs. Subsequently, a migration study from silver-enhanced containers showed significant release of dissolved Ag in 3% acetic acid and a lower release in milk formula. Also, heating led to a considerable release of silver from the container. To conclude, further studies are needed to obtain clear release models to better understand the risk on humans and on the environment.

<p>Temperature is the common accelerant that is used for shelf-life determination of shelf-stable food because it is easy to use and there are models such as Q₁₀and Arrhenius, which are available for shelf-life prediction. The accelerated shelf-life test (ASLT) still requires months of analysis time as it only uses temperature as the accelerant. Oxygen pressure as an accelerant has not been given much attention even though many studies have shown the negative impact of oxygen on the shelf-life of food. An effective analysis method with multiple accelerants has the potential for the development of a rapid shelf-life determination method. Hence, this research focused on the invention of a rapid method, named the Ultra-Accelerated Shelf-Life Test (UASLT) that combines oxygen pressure and temperature as accelerants and the development of shelf-life prediction model(s). The study hypothesized that the application of elevated oxygen pressure and elevated temperature (40C) increases the amount of oxygen diffusing into packaged food which leads to rapid degradation of nutrients that further reduces the overall shelf-life analysis time compared to the ASLT method. A custom-made high-pressure chamber with a 100% oxygen environment at 40C was designed and developed as part of the UASLT method. The impact of the application of oxygen pressure on oxygen diffusivity in polymeric food packaging materials was investigated on three packages with different oxygen permeability properties. The application of oxygen pressure significantly increased the rate of oxygen transfer and the oxygen diffusivity values for all packaging materials compared to the counterparts that were not exposed to the pressure. A shelf-stable model food fortified with vitamins A, B1, C and D3 was developed to investigate the effectiveness of the UASLT method in degrading the quality indicators in the model foods in a polyethylene terephthalate (PET) container. PET was chosen as it was the most permeable to oxygen. Model food was also subjected to ASLT conditions at the same temperature without additional pressure and at room temperature (control). A degradation of 27.1 ± 1.9%, 13.9± 2.1%, 35.8 ± 1.0%, and 35.4 ± 0.7% were seen in vitamins A, B1, C and D3, respectively, in just 50 days. Slower degradation was observed with samples kept under the ASLT conditions for 105 days and reached a degradation of 24.0 ± 2.0%, 4.9 ± 6.1%, 32.0 ± 3.1% and 25.1 ± 1.5% for vitamin A, B1, C and D3, respectively. The control samples that were studied for 210 days showed 14.9 ± 5.0%, 2.0 ± 2.2%, 13.8 ± 2.2% and 10.6% ± 0.8% degradation in vitamins A, B1, C and D3, respectively. The increase in the dE values due to browning in samples kept at the UASLT, ASLT and control conditions were 11.67 ± 0.09, 7.49 ± 0.19 and 2.51 ± 0.11, respectively. The degradation of vitamins A, C, D3 was analyzed using the 1st order kinetic and the rate constant,    (day^-1) was used to develop four prediction models. Vitamin B1 values were omitted from the kinetic analysis due to insufficient degradation. Two temperature-oxygen diffusion models were developed by correlating oxygen diffusivity and   . Comparisons were made with the temperature-based models of    and Arrhenius. The predicted    values across the models were in the range of 0.051-0.054 day^-1,0.080-0.088 day^-1 and 0.048-0.051 day^-1, for vitamin A, C and D3, respectively. The    values estimated for vitamins A, C, and D3 were 2.16, 2.63 and 2.62, respectively. The predicted shelf-life of vitamin A, C and D3 to undergo 25% reduction was in the range of 404 to 551, 321-353 and 529-583 days across all models, respectively. The shelf-life predicted from the temperature-oxygen diffusion models was close to the temperature models indicating the potential to be paired with the UASLT method. Experimental verification is needed to analyze the errors in the prediction. The addition of oxygen pressure further reduced the shelf-life analysis time by 50% compared to ASLT. Elevated external oxygen pressure can be used as an accelerant along with elevated temperatures (40C) for rapid shelf-life testing of packaged foods. This novel approach has potential application in the food industry for faster shelf-life analysis of food.</p>

<p dir="ltr">Controlled environment agriculture (CEA) is a practice of food production under optimized conditions to intensify production yield, and thus has potential for addressing food security for a growing population. Aquaculture and aquaponics are two types of CEA that can produce aquatic animals along with plants using non-arable lands and lower inputs of water and nutrients. However, their operations have high energy consumption and generate considerable nutrient-rich sludge and wastewater, making their environmental performance an emerging research focus. This thesis quantitively analyzed the environmental sustainability of aquaponics and aquaculture production using life cycle assessment (LCA).</p><p dir="ltr">The LCA on aquaponics evaluated a marine aquaponics production system that grew shrimp, red orache, minutina and okahajiki, and analyzed the effect of salinity, C/N ratio, and shrimp-to-plant stocking density. The grow-out stage accounted for over 90% of total environmental impacts with electricity use as the predominant contributor. The marine aquaponic production exhibited best environmental performance when operated at low salinity (10 ppt), and high C/N ratio (15) and stocking density (5:1), which can be further improved by 95–99% via the use of wind power as electricity source. Additionally, variation in the prices of aquaponic products was found to improve the system’s environmental impacts by up to 8%.</p><p dir="ltr">The aquaculture LCA focused on shrimp recirculating aquaculture systems (RAS) and evaluated the environmental feasibility of microalgae-based wastewater treatment. Microalgae treatment effectively removed 74% of phosphate in RAS wastewater and thus reduced the freshwater eutrophication potential by 55%. However, its remediation performance was inferior to activated sludge treatment due to different operation scales. Electricity was the principal hotspot of microalgae treatment and made up over 99% of all the environmental impacts, which can be considerably decreased by reducing coal use in the electricity supply. Three utilization pathways for algal biomass (feed ingredient, biodiesel and biogas) were investigated; however, only biogas production was found to show environmental benefits to marine eutrophication remediation owing to the low biomass quantity produced.</p><p dir="ltr">While <a href="" target="_blank">aquaculture and aquaponics</a> play important roles in meeting the globally growing demand for seafood, this thesis provides valuable life cycle inventory data for these fields. Moreover, the LCA models developed in this thesis are useful decision-making tools for aquaculture and aquaponic producers to adapt farming practices with lower environmental footprint.</p>

<p dir="ltr">Pea protein is one of the most used plant proteins in food products, acting as an alternative to conventional animal protein sources due to its abundant, nutritious, and ease in supply chain characteristics. The objective of this study was to investigate the impact of homogenization and UHT processing parameters on the properties of protein emulsion. Protein emulsions (8% w/w pea protein isolate and 1% w/w sunflower oil) were freshly prepared prior to processing, and the untreated sample was considered as the control (NT). The pilot-scale aseptic processing system (APS) used in this study consisted of two coil-in-shell heaters and two coolers. Samples flowed through each section of the APS system following this order: balance tank, pre-heater, final heater, hold tube, pre-cooler, and final cooler. The homogenizer was located either after the pre-cooler (AC) or the pre-heater (AH) with a controlled temperature of 165F. A third setup was utilized by bypassing the homogenizer in the UHT system. An additional 8-hour continuous run was conducted to mimic a commercial manufacturing operation by recirculating the protein emulsion in the UHT system, and fouling detections were made using a non-intrusive sensor (NICS). 5% w/w soy protein, 1% w/w sunflower oil oil-in-water emulsion was also used for fouling tests. Protein concentration, pH and zeta potential, Cryo-SEM microscopic image, particle size distribution, flocculation index (FI), coalescence index (CI), viscosity and color data were collected and analyzed. The protein concentration had a 23.20 ± 4.00 %, 28.35 ± 5.02 %, 27.98 ± 5.05% and 21.38 ± 5.75% reduction for AC, AH, UHT and NT samples, respectively, when compared with the initial concentration in the formula. AC, AH, UHT and NT samples had pH values of 7.24 ± 0.01, 7.27 ± 0.01, 7.28 ± 0.02, 7.41 ± 0.01, and zeta potential values of -42.91 ± 0.89, -47.30 ± 0.91, -46.91 ± 1.40 and -50.11 ± 1.47 mV. AC sample had a smaller and NT sample had a bigger, respectively, mean weighted size D 4,3 value than AH and UHT samples, which could also be seen in Cryo-SEM images where only AC images contained more visually observable smaller particles. FI and CI for AC, AH and UHT indicated the formation of flocs but no irreversible aggregations were found. Shear-thinning AC, AH, UHT and NT samples had viscosity decreases from 4.00 to 3.56, 3.88 to 3.75, 4.02 to 3.79 and 10.42 to 9.56 mPa*s in 1 1/s to 100 1/s shear rate range. NT sample had a very noticeable color difference from the other three treated samples. Overall, AC samples had similar or better emulsion stability in all aspects than AH and UHT samples, suggesting that AC processing could potentially be used in the protein beverage industry for manufacturing products with improved shelf stability. Severe foulants buildups were neither observed nor detected by a non-intrusive continuous sensor (NICS) in the UHT system within 8 hours of process for both pea protein and soy protein emulsion, indicating that this UHT-homogenization processing can potentially be adapted to current industrial practices for higher-quality protein beverages.</p>

Tesis por compendio / [ES] La producción y consumo de plásticos derivados de petróleo ha crecido exponencialmente en las últimas décadas, impactando en la naturaleza y los seres vivos. Los envases alimentarios son considerados la principal fuente de contaminación por plásticos. Por ello, el estudio y desarrollo de nuevos materiales derivados de recursos renovables y biodegradables ha emergido como un nuevo campo de gran interés. La presente tesis doctoral se enfocó en el desarrollo y caracterización de biopolímeros de polihidroxialcanoato (PHA) derivados de subproductos industriales y de la fracción orgánica de aguas residuales municipales, los residuos biológicos municipales, sintetizados por cultivos microbianos mixtos y producidos mediante las tecnologías de electroestirado y mezclado en fundido. Los materiales resultantes fueron desarrollados para obtener monocapas y multicapas activas y de alta barrera a oxígeno para su uso en envases alimentarios basados en la Bioeconomía Circular. Para lograr los objetivos, esta tesis doctoral se ha dividido en tres bloques según la tecnología utilizada en la obtención de los materiales. El primer bloque consistió en la extracción de los PHAs derivados de residuos agro-industriales para su óptima utilización en los procesos de producción. Posteriormente, se realizó el procesado de los PHAs mediante la técnica de electroestirado, por la cual se obtuvieron fibras poliméricas que fueron tratadas térmicamente para formar films continuos y homogéneos. Estas monocapas presentaron buenas propiedades térmicas y mecánicas, así como alta barrera tanto a vapores como a gases. Además, las fibras fueron funcionalizadas con compuestos orgánicos presentes en aceites esenciales para proporcionarles una función antimicrobiana activa contra microorganismos trasmitidos por los alimentos. Por otro lado, se realizó el electroestirado de copolímeros de etileno-alcohol vinílico, un polímero sintético que se biodegrada en condiciones específicas y que posee alta barrera a oxígeno. Además, nanocristales de celulosa fueron añadidos al EVOH, para crear monocapas híbridas de alta barrera más sostenibles. En el segundo bloque, los materiales se procesaron mediante la técnica de mezclado en fundido. Para ello, los PHAs derivados de biomasa del primer bloque se mezclaron con PHAs comerciales, así como con cargas celulósicas para formar "compuestos verdes", en el que todos los materiales estaban basados en recursos renovables y biodegradables. Las mezclas mostraron buena miscibilidad y propiedades ópticas, una flexibilidad mejorada, así como propiedades de barrera similares a las del material de biopoliéster puro. Finalmente, en el tercer bloque, se produjeron sistemas multicapas utilizando mezclas de PHA desarrolladas ad-hoc, y materiales monocapa de PHA electroestirado del primer bloque. Estas estructuras multicapas se basaron en las propiedades adhesivas que poseen las fibras electroestiradas tras aplicarles el tratamiento térmico y en el uso de los revestimientos de CNCs como capas intermedias de barrera a oxígeno. Así, los sistemas multicapas desarrollados fueron totalmente compostables, con alta barrera a oxígeno, siendo potenciales candidatos para sustituir a los actuales envases alimentarios basados en materiales no renovables provenientes del petróleo. Por lo tanto, los materiales aquí desarrollados son tanto bioadhesivos muy prometedores que muestran propiedades antimicrobianas y de alta barrera, como capas exteriores con fines estructurales o para uso como films finos. Así, por laminación, estos materiales pueden dar lugar a films multicapas autoadhesivos, empleados tanto en envases rígidos, semirrígidos o flexibles. Estas estructuras son sostenibles y respetuosas con el medio ambiente y además son biodegradables mediante compostaje y, en algún caso, biodegradables en el medio ambiente. Asimismo, son potencialmente capaces de proporcionar una calidad y seguridad alimentaria comparables a las derivadas de fuentes petroquímicas. / [CA] La producció i el consum de plàstics derivats de petroli ha crescut exponencialment en les últimes dècades, impactant en la naturalesa i els éssers vius. Els envasos alimentaris són considerats la principal font de contaminació per plàstics. Per això, l'estudi i el desenvolupament de nous materials derivats de recursos renovables i biodegradables ha emergit com un nou camp de gran interès. Aquesta tesi doctoral es va enfocar en el desenvolupament i la caracterització de biopolímers de polihidroxialcanoat (PHA) derivats de subproductes industrials i de la fracció orgànica d'aigües residuals municipals, els residus biològics municipals, sintetitzats per cultius microbians mixtos i produïts mitjançant les tecnologies d'electroestirat i barrejat en fosa. Els materials resultants van ser desenvolupats per obtenir monocapes i multicapes actives i d'alta barrera a oxigen per utilitzar-los en envasos alimentaris basats en la Bioeconomia Circular. Per assolir els objectius, aquesta tesi doctoral s'ha dividit en tres blocs segons la tecnologia utilitzada per obtenir els materials. El primer bloc va consistir en l'extracció dels PHA derivats de residus agroindustrials per a la seva òptima utilització en els processos de producció. Posteriorment, es va realitzar el processament dels PHA mitjançant la tècnica d'electroestirat, per la qual es van obtenir fibres polimèriques que van ser tractades tèrmicament per formar films continus i homogenis. Aquestes monocapes van presentar bones propietats tèrmiques i mecàniques, així com alta barrera tant a vapors com a gasos. A més, les fibres van ser funcionalitzades amb compostos orgànics presents en olis essencials per proporcionar-los una funció antimicrobiana activa contra microorganismes transmesos pels aliments. D'altra banda, es va realitzar l'electroestirat de copolímers d'etilè-alcohol vinílic, un polímer sintètic que es biodegrada en condicions específiques i que té alta barrera a oxigen. A més, nanocristalls de cel·lulosa van ser afegits a l'EVOH, per crear monocapes híbrides d'alta barrera més sostenibles. Al segon bloc, els materials es van processar mitjançant la tècnica de barrejat en fosa. Per això, els PHAs derivats de biomassa del primer bloc es van barrejar amb PHAs comercials, així com amb càrregues cel·lulòsiques per formar "compostos verds", en què tots els materials estaven basats en recursos renovables i biodegradables. Les barreges van mostrar bona miscibilitat i propietats òptiques, una flexibilitat millorada, així com propietats de barrera similars a les del material de biopolièster pur. Finalment, al tercer bloc, es van produir sistemes multicapes utilitzant barreges de PHA desenvolupades ad-hoc, i materials monocapa de PHA electroestirat del primer bloc. Aquestes estructures multicapes es van basar en les propietats adhesives que tenen les fibres electroestirades després d'aplicar-los el tractament tèrmic i en l'ús dels revestiments de CNC com a capes intermèdies de barrera a oxigen. Així, els sistemes multicapes desenvolupats van ser totalment compostables, amb alta barrera a oxigen, sent potencials candidats per substituir els actuals envasos alimentaris basats en materials no renovables provinents del petroli. Per tant, els materials aquí desenvolupats són tant bioadhesius molt prometedors que mostren propietats antimicrobianes i d'alta barrera, com a capes exteriors amb fins estructurals o per a ús com a films fins. Així, per laminació, aquests materials poden donar lloc a films multicapes autoadhesius, emprats tant en envasos rígids, semirígids o flexibles. Aquestes estructures són sostenibles i respectuoses amb el medi ambient ia més són biodegradables mitjançant compostatge i, en algun cas, biodegradables al medi ambient. Així mateix, són potencialment capaços de proporcionar una qualitat i seguretat alimentària comparables a les derivades de fonts petroquímiques. / [EN] The production and consumption of petroleum derived plastics that are not biodegradable has grown exponentially in recent decades, with the consequent impact on nature and organisms. The food packaging sector is today considered the main source of plastic contamination. Therefore, the study and development of new materials derived from renewable and biodegradable resources has emerged as a new field of great scientific, social, economic and political interest. The current PhD thesis focused on the development and characterization of polyhydroxyalkanoate (PHA) biopolymers derived from agro-industrial by-products and from the organic fraction of municipal wastewater, the municipal biowaste, synthesized by mixed microbial cultures and produced by electrospinning and melt compounding technologies. The resultant materials were particularly developed to obtain high-oxygen-barrier active monolayers and multilayers for use in Circular Bioeconomy-based food packaging. In order to achieve the objectives, this PhD thesis has been divided into three blocks according to the technology used to obtain the materials. The first block consisted of the extraction of PHAs derived from agro-industrial waste for their optimal use in production processes. After this, the PHAs were then processed using the electrospinning technique, whereby polymeric fibers were obtained and thermally post-treated by an annealing process to form continuous and homogeneous films, also known as "biopapers". These monolayers showed good thermal and mechanical properties, as well as a high barrier to both vapors and gases. In addition, the fibers were functionalized with eugenol, an organic compound present in essential oils, to provide them with active antimicrobial function against foodborne microorganisms. On the other hand, the electrospinning of poly(ethylene-co-vinyl alcohol) copolymers, a synthetic polymer that is claimed to biodegrade under specific conditions and with high oxygen barrier, was performed. Cellulose nanocrystals were added to EVOH, to create high barrier more sustainable hybrid monolayers. In the second block, the materials were processed using the melt compounding technique. For this purpose, the biomass derived PHAs extracted in the first block were blended with commercial PHAs as well as with cellulosic fillers, in this case rice husk flour, in order to form "green composites", where all the materials were based on renewable and biodegradable resources. After film formation by hot pressing, the blends showed excellent miscibility and optical properties, improved flexibility, as well as barrier properties similar to the neat biopolyester material. Finally, in the third block, multilayer systems were produced using ad-hoc developed PHA blends, and PHA electrospun monolayer materials developed in the first block. They were based on the adhesive properties of the electrospun fibers after thermal treatment, which allowed the elimination of synthetic adhesive substances normally used in the industry, and on the use of the CNCs coatings as oxygen barrier interlayers. Thus, the multilayer systems developed were fully compostable, with high oxygen barrier, being potential candidates to replace current food packaging based on non-renewable petroleum-based materials. Therefore, the materials developed herein are very promising bioadhesives showing antimicrobial and high barrier properties, as well as outer layers for structural or thin film purposes. Thus, by lamination, these materials can result in self-standing multilayer films, which can be used in rigid or semirigid packaging as well as in flexible packaging. They are sustainable and environmentally friendly, as they are made from renewable sources or waste, and are biodegradable by composting, and, in some case, even biodegradable in the environment. Furthermore, they are potentially capable of providing comparable quality and food safety to those currently marketed from petrochemical sources. / Meléndez Rodríguez, B. (2022). Development and Characterization of Monolayers and Multilayers Based on Biodegradable Materials Derived from Waste and By-products of Interest in Food Packaging [Tesis doctoral]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/184651 / TESIS / Compendio

No / This article describes how an insight into the chemical and physical cues that affect bacterial adhesion and biofilm formation can provide ideas for creating successful antifouling or antimicrobial surfaces. To facilitate the design of new materials, the role of physical and chemical properties on bacterial adhesion is reviewed. The current approaches to reduce bacterial adhesion to various polymeric surfaces are discussed, as well as how multidisciplinary research on surface design and engineering may have an impact on both fundamental and applied microbiological science and technology.

<p dir="ltr">Liquid hydrogen peroxide (LHP) and vapor hydrogen peroxide (VHP) efficacy as a sterilant for <i>Bacillus atrophaeus</i> and <i>Geobacillus stearothermophilus</i> spores in aseptic packaging systems under commercial sterilization conditions were evaluated in this research. The work centers on quantifying and modeling the kinetic parameters that impact peroxide sterilization efficacy, including the D and z values, that relate to the change in concentration required for a 1-log reduction in spore population and a novel Z_conc parameter This comprehensive study is divided into four key investigations, each contributing critical insights to the overall understanding of peroxide sterilization processes.</p><p dir="ltr">The first study examined the inactivation kinetics of <i>B. atrophaeus</i> spores in liquid hydrogen peroxide. By evaluating different concentrations (20%, 28%, and 33%) and temperatures (up to 82.2°C), the study revealed that higher concentrations and elevated temperatures significantly enhanced spore inactivation. The Weibull model provided a more accurate fit for the data, indicating a non-linear relationship between spore reduction and exposure time.</p><p dir="ltr">The second part of the research explored the use of VHP for sterilizing <i>B. atrophaeus</i> spores. With VHP concentrations of 2500 ppm and 4450 ppm at various temperatures, the study demonstrated that higher concentrations and temperatures are highly effective for spore inactivation. Both log-linear and Weibull models accurately described the inactivation kinetics, with the Weibull model showing a slightly better fit, emphasizing the potential of VHP in achieving commercial sterility.</p><p dir="ltr">The third investigation focused on developing predictive models for VHP concentration and its efficacy in spore inactivation. The study evaluated VHP concentrations ranging from 2.32 mg/L to 7.35 mg/L and their impact on spore inactivation rates. The Weibull model proved particularly effective in predicting the inactivation of <i>G. stearothermophilus</i> and <i>B. atrophaeus</i> spores, offering a robust tool for optimizing sterilization protocols in aseptic packaging.</p><p dir="ltr">The fourth and final study of the research investigated the influence of surface roughness on spore survival during VHP sterilization cycles on plastic packaging materials. Artificial roughness on high-density polyethylene (HDPE) coupons was created using sandpaper with different grits. <i>B. atrophaeus</i> spores were applied to both roughened and smooth HDPE surfaces. The study finds that rougher surfaces provide more shelter for spores, reducing sterilization efficacy. For example, surfaces roughened with P-36 grit showed a 2.75 log reduction in spore count, whereas smoother surfaces with P-220 grit achieved a 4.42 log reduction. Contact angle measurements indicated that increased roughness led to more hydrophilic surfaces, with water contact angles decreasing from 149.7° for the pristine sample to 105.4° for the P-36 sample. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) images confirmed that spores were more likely to reside in the valleys of rough surfaces, highlighting the importance of surface characteristics in optimizing VHP sterilization protocols.</p><p dir="ltr">The findings of this dissertation underscore the significant impact of hydrogen peroxide concentration, application conditions, and packaging material surface properties on the efficacy of spore inactivation during sterilization. By providing a comprehensive understanding of these factors, the research contributes to the development of optimized aseptic sterilization protocols, enhancing the reliability and safety of aseptically packaged food and pharmaceutical products. This work will ensure compliance with regulatory standards and improve food safety in commercial manufacturing, laying a solid foundation for future research and practical applications in VHP sterilization technology.</p>

<p dir="ltr">Global food demand increases rapidly as a result of continuously growing population has raised severe concerns with food security. To overcome this critical challenge, food systems must be transformed to produce food with not only higher yield but also better nutritional quality. Therefore, food processing, as a critical step in food production chain that turn agricultural products into food, needs to be innovated through applications of cutting-edge technologies.</p><p dir="ltr">Microbubbles (MBs) are tiny gas-filled bubbles with distinctive physicochemical characteristics, including slow rising speed and long lifetime in liquid, large surface area per unit of gas volume, high internal pressure, high gas dissolution rate, hydrophobic and negatively charged surface and production of reactive oxygen species. Additionally, MB dispersion can enhance the heat and mass transfer properties of liquid. These features have led MBs to numerous applications in the fields of disease treatment, anaerobic digestion, and wastewater treatment, however, their applications in food processing have not thoroughly explored.</p><p dir="ltr">In this dissertation, MB technology was applied to different unit operations of food processing, including freezing, concentration and extraction, and the effects of MBs on process efficiency and food product quality were comprehensively studied. In the first study, MB-infused freezing medium was used for grape tomato immersion freezing. MBs markedly reduced the drip loss of tomato by 13.7–17.0% and improved its firmness, which were correlated to the accelerated nucleation process and formation of small ice crystals during freezing. The impact of MBs on water evaporation during apple juice concentration was investigated in the second study. MBs dramatically enhanced water evaporation, and concentration at bubble gas temperature of 40 °C and juice temperature of 70 °C showed the largest increase in the evaporation rate, by 104%. Moreover, although air-MBs showed an oxidation effect on both frozen tomato and concentrated juice, N₂-MBs were found to be an ideal alternative which much better preserved the nutritional values of processed foods. Lastly, MBs and cold plasma-MBs were incorporated into citric acid solution for extracting pectin from apple pomace. MBs present in extracting solvent increased the extraction yield by 18–21%, and extraction with plasma-MBs showed even higher yields by up to 30%. Additionally, MB and cold plasma-assisted extraction were found more effective in extracting complex RG-I pectin.</p><p dir="ltr">This dissertation develops various approaches to incorporating MBs into conventional unit operations and enhancing their performance. With these novel applications explored, MB technology will not only increase the productivity but also reduce the energy, water and chemical use of food processing. Ultimately, MB-assisted processes are expected to play an important role in improving the sustainability of the food industry.</p>

<p>Modeling microbial inactivation has a great influence on the optimization, control and design of food processes. In the area of food safety, modeling is a valuable tool for characterizing survival curves and for supporting food safety decisions. The modeling of microbial behavior is based on the premise that the response of the microbial population to the environment factors is reproducible. And that from the past, it is possible to predict how these microorganisms would respond in other similar environments. Thus, the use of mathematical models has become an attractive and relevant tool in the food industry.</p> <p>This research provides tools to relate the inactivation of microorganisms of public health importance with processing conditions used in nonisothermal and non-thermal food processing technologies. Current models employ simple approaches that do not capture the realistic behavior of microbial inactivation. This oversight brings a number of fundamental and practical issues, such as excessive or insufficient processing, which can result in quality problems (when foods are over-processed) or safety problems (when foods are under-processed). Given these issues, there is an urgent need to develop reliable models that accurately describe the inactivation of dangerous microbial cells under more realistic processing conditions and that take into account the variability on microbial population, for instance their resistance to lethal agents. To address this urgency, this dissertation focused on mathematical models, combined mathematical tools with microbiological science to develop models that, by resembling realistic and practical processing conditions, can provide a better estimation of the efficacy of food processes. The objective of the approach is to relate the processing conditions to microbial inactivation. The development of the modeling approach went through all the phases of a modeling cycle from planning, data collection, formulation of the model approach according to the data analysis, and validation of the model under different conditions than those that the approach was developed.</p> <p>A non-linear ordinary differential equation was used to describe the inactivation curves with the hypothesis that the momentary inactivation rate is not constant and depends on the instantaneous processing conditions. The inactivation rate was related to key process parameters to describe the inactivation kinetics under more realistic processing conditions. From the solution of the non-linear ordinary differential equation and the optimization algorithm, safety inferences in the microbial response can be retrieved, such as the critical lethal variable that increases microbial inactivation. For example, for nonisothermal processes such as microwave heating, time-temperature profiles were modeled and incorporated into the inactivation rate equation. The critical temperature required to increase the microbial inactivation was obtained from the optimization analysis. For non-thermal processes, such as cold plasma, the time-varying concentration of reactive gas species was incorporated into the inactivation rate equation. The approach allowed the estimation of the critical gas concentration above which microbial inactivation becomes effective. For Pulsed Electric Fields (PEF), the energy density is the integral parameter that groups the wide range of parameters of the PEF process, such as the electric field strength, the treatment time and the electrical conductivity of the sample. The literature has shown that all of these parameters impact microbial inactivation. It has been hyphothesized that the inactivation rate is a function of the energy density and that above a threshold value significant microbial inactivation begins. </p> <p>The differential equation was solved numerically using the Runge-Kutta method (<i>ode45</i> in MATLAB ®). The<i> lsqcurvefit</i> function in MATLAB ® estimated the kinetic parameters. The approach to model microbial inactivation, whether when samples were subjected to nonisothermal or to non-thermal food processes, was validated using data published in the literature and/or in other samples and treatment conditions. The modeling approaches developed by this dissertation are expected to assist the food industry in the development and validation process to achieve the level of microbial reduction required by regulatory agencies. In addition, it is expected to assist the food industry in managing food safety systems through support food safety decision-making, such as the designation of the minimal critical parameter that may increase microbial inactivation. Finally, this dissertation will contribute in depth to the field of food safety and engineering, with the ultimate outcome of having a broad and highly positive impact on human health by ensuring the consumption of safe food products.</p>