Bidirectional reflectance is a fundamental radiative property of rough surfaces. Knowledge of the bidirectional reflectance is crucial to the emissivity modeling and heat transfer analysis. This thesis concentrates on the modeling and measurements of the bidirectional reflectance for microrough silicon surfaces and on the validity of a hybrid method in the modeling of the bidirectional reflectance for thin-film coated rough surfaces. The surface topography and the bidirectional reflectance distribution function (BRDF) of the rough side of several silicon wafers have been extensively characterized using an atomic force microscope and a laser scatterometer, respectively. The slope distribution calculated from the surface topographic data deviates from the Gaussian distribution. Both nearly isotropic and strongly anisotropic features are observed in the two-dimensional (2-D) slope distributions and in the measured BRDF for more than one sample. The 2-D slope distribution is used in a geometric-optics based model to predict the BRDF, which agrees reasonably well with the measured values. The side peaks in the slope distribution and the subsidiary peaks in the BRDF for two anisotropic samples are attributed to the formation of {311} planes during chemical etching. The correlation between the 2-D slope distribution and the BRDF has been developed. A boundary integral method is applied to simulate the bidirectional reflectance of thin-film coatings on rough substrates. The roughness of the substrate is one dimensional for simplification. The result is compared to that from a hybrid method which uses the geometric optics approximation to model the roughness effect and the thin-film optics to consider the interference due to the coating. The effects of the film thickness and the substrate roughness on the validity of the hybrid method have been investigated. The validity regime of the hybrid method is established for silicon dioxide films on silicon substrates in the visible wavelength range. The proposed method to characterize the microfacet orientation and to predict the BRDF may be applied to other anisotropic or non-Gaussian rough surfaces. The measured BRDF may be used to model the apparent emissivity of silicon wafers to improve the temperature measurement accuracy in semiconductor manufacturing processes. The developed validity regime for the hybrid method can be beneficial to future research related to the modeling for thin-film coated rough surfaces.

In this thesis, two MFC based films Carboxymethylated-Microfibrillated Cellulose (MFC) and Enzymatic-MFC were characterized and metalized in order to improve the barrier properties at high relative humidity. Several methods were used for the characterization process, which were Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM), Contact Angle (CA), Energy Dispersive Spectra (EDS), Light Microscopy (LM), Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), and Oxygen Transmission Rate (OTR). Physical Vapor Deposition (PVD) system was used for the metalization of film, a thin layer of aluminium with a thickness of 200 nm was deposited on the films. The results revealed that ENZ-MFC exhibit a higher roughness and lower OTR values, compared to CM-MFC. The contact angle values proved that both non-metalized MFC films exhibited a hydrophilic surface with values around 50 degrees. SEM and EDS images showed that both films exhibited surface defects with dimensions in the order of a micrometer. The best barrier improvement by metalization was achieved for the metalized CM-MFC, where the OTR values were decreased by one order of magnitude after metalization. However, for ENZ-MFC metalization did not improve OTR at high RH. The protective layer was successfully protecting the MFC film as long as the surface roughness of the film was not too high. The limit is between 40 and 140nm (in root mean square roughness values). / I denna avhandling karakteriserades två MFC-baserade filmer Carboxymethylated-MFC och   Enzymatic-MFC som metalliserades för att förbättra barriäregenskaperna vid hög relativ fuktighet. Flera metoder har används för karaktäriseringsprocessen, vilka var Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM), Contact Angle (CA), Energy Dispersive Spectra (EDS), Light Microscopy (LM), Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), och Oxygen Transmission Rate (OTR). Physical Vapor Deposition (PVD) systemet användes för metalliseringen av filmerna, där ett tunt skikt aluminium med en tjocklek av 200 nm deponerades. Resultaten visade att ENZ-MFC har högreråhet och lägre OTR-värden jämfört med CM-MFC. Kontaktvinkelvärdena påvisade att bådaicke-metalliserade MFC-filmer har en hydrofil yta med värden omkring 50 grader. SEM- och EDS-bilder visade att båda filmerna har ytdefekter i storleksordningen en mikrometer. Den bästa barriärförbättringen genom metallisering uppnåddes för den metalliserade CM-MFC, där OTR-värdena minskade med en storleksordning efter metallisering. För ENZ-MFCförbättrade dock metallisering inte OTR vid hög RH. Det skyddande skiktet skyddar effektivt MFC-filmen så länge som filmens ytråhet inte var för hög. Gränsen är intervallet mellan 40 och140 nm (Kvadratiskt medelvärde för ytråhet).

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Compression of coated pellets is a practical alternative to capsule filling. The current practice is to add cushioning agents to minimize the stress on the coated pellets. Cushioning agents however add bulkiness and reduce the overall drug loading capacity. In this study, we investigated the performance of compressed coated pellets with no cushioning agent to evaluate the feasibility of predicting the coat behaviour using thermo-mechanical and rheological analysis techniques. Different coating formulations were made of ethyl cellulose (EC) as a coating polymer and two different kinds of additives were incorporated into the polymeric coating solution. Triethyl Citrate (TEC) and Polyethylene glycol 400(PEG400) were used as plasticizers at different levels to the coating formulations (10%, 20%, 30%). Thermal, mechanical and rheological measurements of the coating film formulations were achieved to investigate the effect of plasticizers. Thermal gravimetric analysis results (TGA) showed higher residual moisture content in films plasticised with PEG 400 compared to their TEC counterparts. Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC), Dynamic Mechanical Analysis (DMA) and Parallel Plate Shear Rheometer (PPSR) were used to study the influence of the level and type of plasticisers incorporated in coating film formulation on the performance of the coating film. In this study, both DSC and DMA were used to investigate the Tg for each film coating formulation in order to evaluate the effect of the additives. In general DMA results for the Tg value of the films were always higher by 10-20% than those measured by the DSC. Furthermore, clamp size and the frequency of the oscillation have an influence on the evaluation of Tg. Complex viscosity for different coating film formulations revealed that the shear hinning gradient changes with temperature and plasticiser type and concentration. The value of complex viscosity from DMA and PPSR exhibits power law behaviour. The rheological moduli were indirectly affected by the level of plasticiser. There was a discrepancy between the complex viscosity results obtained from both DMA and PPSR at similar temperature but they follow the same trend. The non plasticized polymer showed a 10 time higher complex viscosity values when measured by DMA over that measured by PPSR. The difference was smaller in plasticized films but it was not consistent. Therefore a consistent coefficient to correlate the DMA and PPSR couldn’t be accurately determined Coated pellets were compressed and key process parameters were evaluated. The obtained results revealed that the coating thickness has a significant effect on the release profile of the final products. It was found that by increasing the coating film thickness, the percentage released decreased. Also the compression force has lower influence on the drug release profile, while the dwell time has very low effect on the percentage release from the final products. Optimum release profile was obtained at a coating level of 5.5% w/w and a compression force of 4700N In conclusion, the elasticity of the plasticised EC films in this study meant that the internal stress is not dissipated during compression and the dwell time range that was used in this experiment. Increasing the thickness therefore was necessary to enhance the strength of the film and avoid cracking. The mechanical and rheological profiling was helpful therefore to understand the behaviour of the coated pellets and predict the film properties at various steps of the process of coating and compression (i.e., various shear rate regimes). Experimental design approach to studying the key process and formulation parameters helped identify the optimum values for the process.

Additives, incorporated in film coating formulations, and their process parameters are generally selected using a trial-and-error approach. However, coating problems and defects, especially those associated with aqueous coating systems, indicate the necessity of embracing a quality-by-design approach to identify the optimum coating parameters. In this study, the feasibility of using thermal and rheological measurements to help evaluate and design novel coating formulations has been investigated. Hydroxypropyl methylcellulose acetate succinate (HPMCAS), an enteric coating polymer, was used as the film forming polymer. Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC), Dynamic Mechanical Analysis (DMA), and Parallel Plate Shear Rheometery (PPSR) were used to evaluate the effect of different plasticisers on the performance of HPMCAS. The results illustrate that, for identical formulations, the DSC and DMA methods yielded up to 40% differences in glass transition temperature (Tg) values. Moreover, Tg measured using loss modulus signals were always 20-30 oC less than those measured using tan delta results in DMA testing. Absolute and relative Tg values can significantly vary depending on the geometry of the samples, clamp size, temperature ramping rate and the frequency of the oscillations. Complex viscosity data for different formulations demonstrated a variable shear thinning behaviour and a Tg independent ranking. It is, therefore, insufficient to rely purely on Tg values to determine the relative performance of additives. In addition, complex viscosity results, obtained using both the DMA and PPSR techniques at similar temperatures, are shown to be comparable. The results from both techniques were therefore used to produce continuous master curves for the HPMCAS formulations. Additionally, step strain tests showed that HPMCAS chains do not fully III disentangle after 105 seconds as predicted by the Maxwell model. Finally, in situ aqueous-based coating experiments proved that mixtures of triethyl acetyl citrate and acetylated monoglyceride (TEAC/AMG), even without cooling of the suspension, do not cause blocking of the spray nozzle whereas triethyl citrate (TEC) based formulae did. TEAC (alone or in a combination with AMG) exhibits superior wettability to HPMCAS than TEC/AMG formulations and can be used to enhance the efficiency and film quality of the dry coating process.

Additives, incorporated in film coating formulations, and their process parameters are generally selected using a trial-and-error approach. However, coating problems and defects, especially those associated with aqueous coating systems, indicate the necessity of embracing a quality-by-design approach to identify the optimum coating parameters. In this study, the feasibility of using thermal and rheological measurements to help evaluate and design novel coating formulations has been investigated. Hydroxypropyl methylcellulose acetate succinate (HPMCAS), an enteric coating polymer, was used as the film forming polymer. Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC), Dynamic Mechanical Analysis (DMA), and Parallel Plate Shear Rheometery (PPSR) were used to evaluate the effect of different plasticisers on the performance of HPMCAS. The results illustrate that, for identical formulations, the DSC and DMA methods yielded up to 40% differences in glass transition temperature (Tg) values. Moreover, Tg measured using loss modulus signals were always 20-30 oC less than those measured using tan delta results in DMA testing. Absolute and relative Tg values can significantly vary depending on the geometry of the samples, clamp size, temperature ramping rate and the frequency of the oscillations. Complex viscosity data for different formulations demonstrated a variable shear thinning behaviour and a Tg independent ranking. It is, therefore, insufficient to rely purely on Tg values to determine the relative performance of additives. In addition, complex viscosity results, obtained using both the DMA and PPSR techniques at similar temperatures, are shown to be comparable. The results from both techniques were therefore used to produce continuous master curves for the HPMCAS formulations. Additionally, step strain tests showed that HPMCAS chains do not fully III disentangle after 105 seconds as predicted by the Maxwell model. Finally, in situ aqueous-based coating experiments proved that mixtures of triethyl acetyl citrate and acetylated monoglyceride (TEAC/AMG), even without cooling of the suspension, do not cause blocking of the spray nozzle whereas triethyl citrate (TEC) based formulae did. TEAC (alone or in a combination with AMG) exhibits superior wettability to HPMCAS than TEC/AMG formulations and can be used to enhance the efficiency and film quality of the dry coating process.

Die Solarstromerzeugung mit Photovoltaikmodulen entwickelt sich zu einer wesentlichen Säule der Energieversorgung. Dabei kann die Integration der Module in die Gebäudehülle die Nachhaltigkeit der Systeme verbessern und neue Anwendungen in der Architektur erschließen. Die vorliegende Arbeit untersucht die bautechnischen Anforderungen, die sich bei der gebäudeintegrierten Verwendung von Photovoltaikmodulen im Hinblick auf die Sicherheit von Bauteilen aus Glas ergeben. Diese Anforderungen betreffen die materielle Zusammensetzung als Bauprodukt, die Konstruktionsweise und die zu erbringenden Nachweise. Die alleinige Produktqualifizierung nach der elektrotechnischen Normung und die üblichen Qualitätssicherungsmaßnahmen in der Modulproduktion bieten hierfür keine hinreichende Grundlage, da sie keine charakteristischen Materialkennwerte liefern. Infolgedessen bedarf die Integration von Photovoltaikmodulen in die Gebäudehülle in vielen Fällen gesonderter Zustimmungs- oder Zulassungsverfahren. Resttragfähigkeitsprüfungen an Glas-Glas-Photovoltaikmodulen verfolgten das Ziel, die mechanischen Sicherheitseigenschaften gängiger Modulaufbauten im Vergleich zu Verbund-Sicherherheitsglas zu ermitteln. Auf der Grundlage der Ergebnisse lassen sich die untersuchten Aufbauten als mindestens gleichwertig beurteilen. Mit einer bauaufsichtlichen Einstufung geeigneter Modulaufbauten als Verbund-Sicherherheitsglas könnte sich der zusätzliche Nachweisaufwand für gebäudeintegrierte Photovoltaik erheblich reduzieren. Im Vierpunkt-Biegeversuch wurde der Einfluss der Glasbeschichtung mit Dünnschichtsolarzellen auf die Festigkeit der verwendeten Gläser analysiert. Die für eine praktikable Qualitätssicherung durch die Hersteller wünschenswerte Prüfung im Fertigungsformat der Module erforderte eine Modifikation der Probengeometrie. Numerische Berechnungen konnten die Anwendbarkeit des Prüf- und Auswertungsverfahrens auf die vergrößerte Probenbreite nachweisen. Bei beiden untersuchten Dünnschichttechnologien ließ sich die Randentschichtung als Ursache für eine leichte Reduzierung der Biegezugfestigkeit identifizieren. Dabei blieben Mindestwerte für das Basisprodukt Floatglas eingehalten. Die Arbeit leistet einen Beitrag zum Nachweis der mechanischen Leistungseigenschaften von Photovoltaikmodulen, die für den Einsatz als Bauprodukt erforderlich sind. Darüber hinaus können die entwickelten Empfehlungen für die photovoltaikspezifischen Entwurfs- und Planungsaufgaben einen ganzheitlichen und interdisziplinären Planungs- und Bauablauf erleichtern. / Solar electricity produced by photovoltaic systems will play a major role in future energy supply systems. Integrating photovoltaic modules into the envelopes of buildings can improve the sustainability of these systems and stimulate new architectural applications. This thesis investigates the structural requirements related to building-integrated photovoltaic modules with regard to the structural safety of architectural glazing components. These requirements apply to the materials used, the structural design and the verification procedures. Neither type approval according to the electrical engineering standards nor customary quality control in module production provides characteristic material properties. Therefore, these standards are not sufficient to determine and declare the performance of a construction product. As a result, building-integrated photovoltaic modules require individual approval in many cases. Residual strength testing of glass-glass photovoltaic modules was carried out with the aim of determining the mechanical safety properties of common module configurations in comparison with laminated safety glass. Based on the results, the configurations tested can be evaluated to provide an equivalent safety level. The classification of suitable module configurations as laminated safety glass in the building codes could significantly reduce the need for additional testing and approval, and thus facilitate the use of building-integrated photovoltaics. The influence of photovoltaic thin-film coatings on the bending strength of the float glass used as a substrate or superstrate was analysed by applying four-point bending tests. As the direct use of full-size photovoltaic-coated glass sheets as samples would simplify quality control by the manufacturers, the dimensions of the specimens were modified with respect to the existing testing standard. Numerical calculations demonstrated the applicability of the test and evaluation procedures when the larger specimen width was used. For both types of investigated thin-film PV technology, edge ablation was determined to cause a slight reduction in the bending strength. The specimens tested still met the minimum values for float glass. The thesis contributes to knowledge on the mechanical performance of photovoltaic modules that are required for use as construction products. In addition, recommendations on the specific design and planning tasks for building-integrated photovoltaics were developed to promote a holistic and interdisciplinary planning and construction process.

Die Solarstromerzeugung mit Photovoltaikmodulen entwickelt sich zu einer wesentlichen Säule der Energieversorgung. Dabei kann die Integration der Module in die Gebäudehülle die Nachhaltigkeit der Systeme verbessern und neue Anwendungen in der Architektur erschließen. Die vorliegende Arbeit untersucht die bautechnischen Anforderungen, die sich bei der gebäudeintegrierten Verwendung von Photovoltaikmodulen im Hinblick auf die Sicherheit von Bauteilen aus Glas ergeben. Diese Anforderungen betreffen die materielle Zusammensetzung als Bauprodukt, die Konstruktionsweise und die zu erbringenden Nachweise. Die alleinige Produktqualifizierung nach der elektrotechnischen Normung und die üblichen Qualitätssicherungsmaßnahmen in der Modulproduktion bieten hierfür keine hinreichende Grundlage, da sie keine charakteristischen Materialkennwerte liefern. Infolgedessen bedarf die Integration von Photovoltaikmodulen in die Gebäudehülle in vielen Fällen gesonderter Zustimmungs- oder Zulassungsverfahren. Resttragfähigkeitsprüfungen an Glas-Glas-Photovoltaikmodulen verfolgten das Ziel, die mechanischen Sicherheitseigenschaften gängiger Modulaufbauten im Vergleich zu Verbund-Sicherherheitsglas zu ermitteln. Auf der Grundlage der Ergebnisse lassen sich die untersuchten Aufbauten als mindestens gleichwertig beurteilen. Mit einer bauaufsichtlichen Einstufung geeigneter Modulaufbauten als Verbund-Sicherherheitsglas könnte sich der zusätzliche Nachweisaufwand für gebäudeintegrierte Photovoltaik erheblich reduzieren. Im Vierpunkt-Biegeversuch wurde der Einfluss der Glasbeschichtung mit Dünnschichtsolarzellen auf die Festigkeit der verwendeten Gläser analysiert. Die für eine praktikable Qualitätssicherung durch die Hersteller wünschenswerte Prüfung im Fertigungsformat der Module erforderte eine Modifikation der Probengeometrie. Numerische Berechnungen konnten die Anwendbarkeit des Prüf- und Auswertungsverfahrens auf die vergrößerte Probenbreite nachweisen. Bei beiden untersuchten Dünnschichttechnologien ließ sich die Randentschichtung als Ursache für eine leichte Reduzierung der Biegezugfestigkeit identifizieren. Dabei blieben Mindestwerte für das Basisprodukt Floatglas eingehalten. Die Arbeit leistet einen Beitrag zum Nachweis der mechanischen Leistungseigenschaften von Photovoltaikmodulen, die für den Einsatz als Bauprodukt erforderlich sind. Darüber hinaus können die entwickelten Empfehlungen für die photovoltaikspezifischen Entwurfs- und Planungsaufgaben einen ganzheitlichen und interdisziplinären Planungs- und Bauablauf erleichtern. / Solar electricity produced by photovoltaic systems will play a major role in future energy supply systems. Integrating photovoltaic modules into the envelopes of buildings can improve the sustainability of these systems and stimulate new architectural applications. This thesis investigates the structural requirements related to building-integrated photovoltaic modules with regard to the structural safety of architectural glazing components. These requirements apply to the materials used, the structural design and the verification procedures. Neither type approval according to the electrical engineering standards nor customary quality control in module production provides characteristic material properties. Therefore, these standards are not sufficient to determine and declare the performance of a construction product. As a result, building-integrated photovoltaic modules require individual approval in many cases. Residual strength testing of glass-glass photovoltaic modules was carried out with the aim of determining the mechanical safety properties of common module configurations in comparison with laminated safety glass. Based on the results, the configurations tested can be evaluated to provide an equivalent safety level. The classification of suitable module configurations as laminated safety glass in the building codes could significantly reduce the need for additional testing and approval, and thus facilitate the use of building-integrated photovoltaics. The influence of photovoltaic thin-film coatings on the bending strength of the float glass used as a substrate or superstrate was analysed by applying four-point bending tests. As the direct use of full-size photovoltaic-coated glass sheets as samples would simplify quality control by the manufacturers, the dimensions of the specimens were modified with respect to the existing testing standard. Numerical calculations demonstrated the applicability of the test and evaluation procedures when the larger specimen width was used. For both types of investigated thin-film PV technology, edge ablation was determined to cause a slight reduction in the bending strength. The specimens tested still met the minimum values for float glass. The thesis contributes to knowledge on the mechanical performance of photovoltaic modules that are required for use as construction products. In addition, recommendations on the specific design and planning tasks for building-integrated photovoltaics were developed to promote a holistic and interdisciplinary planning and construction process.