En lien avec l’avancée rapide de la réduction de la taille des motifs en microfabrication, des processus physiques négligeables à plus grande échelle deviennent dominants lorsque cette taille s’approche de l’échelle nanométrique. L’identification et une meilleure compréhension de ces différents processus sont essentielles pour améliorer le contrôle des procédés et poursuivre la «nanométrisation» des composantes électroniques. Un simulateur cellulaire à l’échelle du motif en deux dimensions s’appuyant sur les méthodes Monte-Carlo a été développé pour étudier l’évolution du profil lors de procédés de microfabrication. Le domaine de gravure est discrétisé en cellules carrées représentant la géométrie initiale du système masque-substrat. On insère les particules neutres et ioniques à l’interface du domaine de simulation en prenant compte des fonctions de distribution en énergie et en angle respectives de chacune des espèces. Le transport des particules est effectué jusqu’à la surface en tenant compte des probabilités de réflexion des ions énergétiques sur les parois ou de la réémission des particules neutres. Le modèle d’interaction particule-surface tient compte des différents mécanismes de gravure sèche telle que la pulvérisation, la gravure chimique réactive et la gravure réactive ionique. Le transport des produits de gravure est pris en compte ainsi que le dépôt menant à la croissance d’une couche mince. La validité du simulateur est vérifiée par comparaison entre les profils simulés et les observations expérimentales issues de la gravure par pulvérisation du platine par une source de plasma d’argon. / With the reduction of feature dimensions, otherwise negligible processes are becoming dominant in microfabricated profile evolution. Improved understanding of these different processes is essential to improve the control of the microfabrication processes and to further decrease of the feature size. To help attaining such control, a 2D feature scale cellular simulator using Monte-Carlo techniques was developed. The calculation domain is discretized in square cells representing empty space, substrate or mask of the initial system. Neutral and ion species are inserted at simulation interface from their respective angular and energy distributions functions. Particles transport to the feature surface is calculated while taking into account ion reflection on sidewall and neutral reemission. The particles-surface interaction model includes the different etching mechanisms such as sputtering, reactive etching and reactive ion etching. Etch product transport is also taken into account as is their deposition leading to thin film growth. Simulation validity is confirmed by comparison between simulated profiles and experimental observations issued from sputtering of platinum in argon plasma source.

Une étape cruciale dans la fabrication des MEMS de haute fréquence est la gravure par plasma de la couche mince d’AlN de structure colonnaire agissant comme matériau piézoélectrique. Réalisé en collaboration étroite avec les chercheurs de Teledyne Dalsa, ce mémoire de maîtrise vise à mieux comprendre les mécanismes physico-chimiques gouvernant la cinétique ainsi que la formation de dommages lors de la gravure de l’AlN dans des plasmas Ar/Cl2/BCl3. Dans un premier temps, nous avons effectué une étude de l’influence des conditions opératoires d’un plasma à couplage inductif sur la densité des principales espèces actives de la gravure, à savoir, les ions positifs et les atomes de Cl. Ces mesures ont ensuite été corrélées aux caractéristiques de gravure, en particulier la vitesse de gravure, la rugosité de surface et les propriétés chimiques de la couche mince. Dans les plasmas Ar/Cl2, nos travaux ont notamment mis en évidence l’effet inhibiteur de l’AlO, un composé formé au cours de la croissance de l’AlN par pulvérisation magnétron réactive et non issu des interactions plasmas-parois ou encore de l’incorporation d’humidité dans la structure colonnaire de l’AlN. En présence de faibles traces de BCl3 dans le plasma Ar/Cl2, nous avons observé une amélioration significative du rendement de gravure de l’AlN dû à la formation de composés volatils BOCl. Par ailleurs, selon nos travaux, il y aurait deux niveaux de rugosité post-gravure : une plus faible rugosité produite par la présence d’AlO dans les plasmas Ar/Cl2 et indépendante de la vitesse de gravure ainsi qu’une plus importante rugosité due à la désorption préférentielle de l’Al dans les plasmas Ar/Cl2/BCl3 et augmentant linéairement avec la vitesse de gravure. / A crucial step in the fabrication of high-frequency MEMS is the etching of the columnar AlN thin film acting as the piezoelectric material. Realized in close collaboration with researchers from Teledyne Dalsa, the objective of this master thesis is to better understand the physico-chemical mechanisms driving the etching kinetics and damage formation dynamics during etching of AlN in Ar/Cl2/BCl3 plasmas. In the first set of experiments, we have studied the influence of the operating parameters of an inductively coupled plasma on the number density of the main etching species in such plasmas, namely positive ions and Cl atoms. These measurements were then correlated with the etching characteristics, in particular the etching rate, the surface roughness, and the chemical properties of the AlN layer after etching. In Ar/Cl2 plasmas, our work has highlighted the inhibition effect of AlO, a compound formed during the AlN growth by reactive magnetron sputtering and not from plasma-wall interactions or from the incorporation of moisture in the columnar nanostructure of AlN. In presence of small amounts of BCl3 in the Ar/Cl2 plasma, we have observed a significant increase of the etching yield of AlN due to the formation of volatile BOCl compounds. Furthermore, our work has demonstrated that there are two levels of roughness following etching: a lower roughness produced by the presence of AlO in Ar/Cl2 plasmas which is independent of the etching rate and a larger roughness due to preferential desorption of Al in Ar/Cl2/BCl3 plasmas which increases linearly with the etching rate.

High Rayleigh number(Ra) turbulent free convection has many unresolved issues related to the phenomenology behind the flux scaling, the presence of a mean wind and its effects, exponential probability distribution functions, the Prandtl number dependence and the nature of near wall structures. Few studies have been conducted in the high Prandtl number regime and the understanding of near wall coherent structures is inadequate for $Ra > 10^9$. The present thesis deals with the results of investigations conducted on high Rayleigh number turbulent free convection in the high Schmidt number(Sc) regime, focusing on the role of near wall coherent structures. We use a new method of driving the convection using concentration difference of NaCl across a horizontal membrane between two tanks to achieve high Ra utilising the low molecular diffusivity of NaCl. The near wall structures are visualised by planar laser induced fluorescence. Flux is estimated from transient measurement of concentration in the top tank by a conductivity probe. Experiments are conducted in tanks of $15\times15\times 23$cm (aspect ratio,AR = 0.65) and $10\times10\times 23$cm (AR = 0.435). Two membranes of 0.45$\mu$ and 35$\mu$ mean pore size were used. For the fine membrane (and for the coarse membrane at low driving potentials), the transport across the partition becomes diffusion dominated, while the transport above and below the partition becomes similar to unsteady non penetrative turbulent free convection above flat horizontal surfaces (Figure~\ref{fig:schem}(A)). In this type of convection, the flux scaled as $q\sim \Delta C_w ^{4/3}$,where $\Delta C_w$ is the near wall concentration difference, similar to that in Rayleigh - B\'nard convection . Hence, we are able to study turbulent free convection over horizontal surfaces in the Rayleigh Number range of $\sim 10^- 10 ^$ at Schmidt number of 602, focusing on the nature and role of near wall coherent structures. To our knowledge, this is the first study showing clear images of near wall structures in high Rayleigh Number - high Schmidt number turbulent free convection. We observe a weak flow across the membrane in the case of the coarser membrane at higher driving potentials (Figure \ref(B)). The effect of this through flow on the flux and the near wall structures is also investigated. In both the types of convection the near wall structure shows patterns formed by sheet plumes, the common properties of these patterns are also investigated. The major outcomes in the above three areas of the thesis can be summarised as follows \subsection* \label \subsubsection* \label The non-dimensional flux was similar to that reported by Goldstein\cite at Sc of 2750. Visualisations show that the near wall coherent structures are line plumes. Depending on the Rayleigh number and the Aspect ratio, different types of large scale flow cells which are driven by plume columns are observed. Multiple large scale flow cells are observed for AR = 0.65 and a single large scale flow for AR= 0.435. The large scale flow create a near wall mean shear, which is seen to vary across the cross section. The orientation of the large scale flow is seen to change at a time scale much larger than the time scale of one large scale circulation The near wall structures show interaction of the large scale flow with the line plumes. The plumes are initiated as points and then gets elongated along the mean shear direction in areas of larger mean shear. In areas of low mean shear, the plumes are initiated as points but gets elongated in directions decided by the flow induced by the adjacent plumes. The effect of near wall mean shear is to align the plumes and reduce their lateral movement and merging. The time scale for the merger of the near wall line plumes is an order smaller than the time scale of the one large scale circulation. With increase in Rayleigh number, plumes become more closely and regularly spaced. We propose that the near wall boundary layers in high Rayleigh number turbulent free convection are laminar natural convection boundary layers. The above proposition is verified by a near wall model, similar to the one proposed by \cite{tjfm}, based on the similarity solutions of laminar natural convection boundary layer equations as Pr$\rightarrow\infty$. The model prediction of the non dimensional mean plume spacing $Ra_\lambda^~=~\lambda /Z_w~=~91.7$ - where $Ra_\lambda$ is the Rayleigh number based on the plume spacing $\lambda$, and $Z_w$ is a near wall length scale for turbulent free convection - matches the experimental measurements. Therefore, higher driving potentials, resulting in higher flux, give rise to lower mean plume spacing so that $\lambda \Delta C_w^$ or $\lambda q^$ is a constant for a given fluid. We also show that the laminar boundary layer assumption is consistent with the flux scaling obtained from integral relations. Integral equations for the Nusselt number(Nu) from the scalar variance equations for unsteady non penetrative convection are derived. Estimating the boundary layer dissipation using laminar natural convection boundary layers and using the mean plume spacing relation, we obtain $Nu\sim Ra^$ when the boundary layer scalar dissipation is only considered. The contribution of bulk dissipation is found to be a small perturbation on the dominant 1/3 scaling, the effect of which is to reduce the effective scaling exponent. In the appendix to the thesis, continuing the above line of reasoning, we conduct an exploratory re-analysis (for $Pr\sim 1$) of the Grossman and Lohse's\cite scaling theory for turbulent Rayleigh - B\'enard convection. We replace the Blasius boundary layer assumption of the theory with a pair of externally forced laminar natural convection boundary layers per plume. Integral equations of the externally forced laminar natural convection boundary layer show that the mixed convection boundary layer thickness is decided by a $5^{th}$ order algebraic equation, which asymptotes to the laminar natural convection boundary layer for zero mean wind and to Blasius boundary layer at large mean winds. \subsubsection*{Effect of wall normal flow on flux and near wall structures} \label{sec:effect-wall-normal} For experiments with the coarser($35\mu$) membrane, we observe three regimes viz. the strong through flow regime (Figure~\ref{fig:schem}(b)), the diffusion regime (Figure \ref{fig:schem}(a)), and a transition regime between the above two regimes that we term as the weak through flow regime. At higher driving potentials, only half the area above the coarser membrane is covered by plumes, with the other half having plumes below the membrane. A wall normal through flow driven by impingement of the large scale flow is inferred to be the cause of this (Figure \ref{fig:schem}(b)). In this strong through flow regime, only a single large scale flow circulation cell oriented along the diagonal or parallel to the walls is detected. The plume structure is more dendritic than the no through flow case. The flux scales as $\Delta C_w^n$, with $7/3\leq n\leq 3$ and is about four times that observed with the fine membrane. The phenomenology of a flow across the membrane driven by the impingement of the large scale flow of strength $W_*$, the Deardorff velocity scale, explains the cubic scaling. We find the surprising result that the non-dimensional flux is smaller than that in the no through flow case for similar parameters. The mean plume spacings in the strong through flow regime are larger and show a different Rayleigh number dependence vis-a-vis the no through flow case. Using integral analysis, an expression for the boundary layer thickness is derived for high Schmidt number laminar natural convection boundary layer with a normal velocity at the wall. (Also, solutions to the integral equations are obtained for the $Sc\sim 1$ case, which are given as an Appendix.) Assuming the gravitational stability condition to hold true, we show that the plume spacing in the high Schmidt number strong through flow regime is proportional to $\sqrt{Z_w\,Z{_{v_i}}}$, where $Z{_{v_i}}$ is a length scale from the through flow velocity. This inference is fairly supported by the plume spacing measurements At lower driving potentials corresponding to the transition regime, the whole membrane surface is seen to be covered by plumes and the flux scaled as $\Delta C_w^{4/3}$. The non-dimensional flux is about the same as in turbulent free convection over flat surfaces if $\frac{1}{2}\Delta C $ is assumed to occur on one side of the membrane. This is expected to occur in the area averaged sense with different parts of the membrane having predominance of diffusion or through flow dominant transport. At very low driving potentials corresponding to the diffusion regime, the diffusion corrected non dimensional flux match the turbulent free convection values, implying a similar phenomena as in the fine membrane. \subsubsection*{Universal probability distribution of near wall structures} \label{sec:univ-prob-distr} We discover that the probability distribution function of the plume spacings show a standard log normal distribution, invariant of the presence or the absence of wall normal through flow and at all the Rayleigh numbers and aspect ratios investigated. These plume structures showed the same underlying multifractal spectrum of singularities in all these cases. As the multifractal curve indirectly represents the processes by which these structures are formed, we conclude that the plume structures are created by a common generating mechanism involving nucleation at points, growth along lines and then merging, influenced by the external mean shear. Inferring from the thermodynamic analogy of multifractal analysis, we hypothesise that the near wall plume structure in turbulent free convection might be formed so that the entropy of the structure is maximised within the given constraints.

La réalisation de dispositifs à des dimensions sous-micrométriques et nanométriques demande une maîtrise parfaite des procédés de fabrication, notamment ceux de gravure. La réalisation des ces dispositifs est complexe et les exigences en termes de qualité et de géométrie des profils de gravure imposent de choisir les conditions opératoires les mieux adaptées. Les simulations de l'évolution spatio-temporelle des profils de gravure que nous proposons dans cette thèse s'inscrivent parfaitement dans ce contexte. Le simulateur que nous avons réalisé offre la possibilité de mieux comprendre les processus qui entrent en jeu lors de la gravure par plasma de profils dans divers matériaux. Il permet de tester l'influence des paramètres du plasma sur la forme du profil et donc de déterminer les conditions opératoires optimales. La mise au point de ce simulateur s'appuie sur les concepts fondamentaux qui gouvernent la gravure par plasma. À partir de l'état des lieux des différentes approches numériques pouvant être utilisées, nous avons élaboré un algorithme stable et adaptable permettant de mettre en évidence l'importance de certains paramètres clés pour la réalisation de profils de gravure par un plasma à haute densité et à basse pression. Les capacités de cet algorithme ont été testées en étudiant d'une part la pulvérisation de Si dans un plasma d'argon et d'autre part, la gravure chimique assistée par les ions de SiO2/Si dans un plasma de chlore. Grâce aux comparaisons entre profils simulés et expérimentaux, nous avons montré l'importance du choix de certains paramètres, comme la nature du gaz utilisé et la pression du plasma, la forme initiale du masque, la sélectivité masque/matériau, le rapport de flux neutre/ion, etc. Nous avons aussi lié ces paramètres à la formation de défauts dans les profils, par exemple celle de facettes sur le masque, de parois concaves, et de micro-tranchées. Enfin, nous avons montré que le phénomène de redépôt des atomes pulvérisés entre en compétition avec la charge électrique de surface pour expliquer la formation de profils en V dans le Pt pulvérisé par un plasma d'argon. / Sub-micrometer and nanometer-size device manufacturing requires perfect control of fabrication processing, in particular plasma etching. The fabrication of such devices is complex and the requirements in terms of quality and geometry of the etching profiles impose to use the best adapted operating conditions. Simulation of space and time-etching profile evolution that is proposed in this thesis addresses these issues. The simulator yields a better understanding of the fundamental mechanisms that occur during plasma etching of features in various materials. It enables to test the influence of plasma parameters on the profile shape and thus to determine the optimal operating conditions. The development of the simulator is based on the fundamental concepts in plasma etching. From thorough review of the various numerical approaches available to simulate etching profile evolution, we have developed a stable and flexible algorithm that enables to emphasize the importance of some key-parameters for the realization of etching profiles by high-density and low-pressure plasma. The capabilities of this algorithm were tested on the study of Si sputtering in an argon plasma and of ion-assisted chemical etching of SiO2/Si in a chlorine plasma. From comparisons between simulated and experimental profiles, we have shown the importance of some parameters, like the nature of the gas, the plasma pressure, the initial shape of the mask, the mask/material selectivity, the neutral/ion flux ratio, etc. We also linked these parameters to the formation of defects in the profile, for exemple mask facetting, sidewall bowing and microtrenching. Finally, we have shown that redeposition of sputtered atoms compete with electric surface charging to explain V-shape profiles observed on Pt sputtered in argon plasmas.

Une étape cruciale dans la fabrication des MEMS de haute fréquence est la gravure par plasma de la couche mince d’AlN de structure colonnaire agissant comme matériau piézoélectrique. Réalisé en collaboration étroite avec les chercheurs de Teledyne Dalsa, ce mémoire de maîtrise vise à mieux comprendre les mécanismes physico-chimiques gouvernant la cinétique ainsi que la formation de dommages lors de la gravure de l’AlN dans des plasmas Ar/Cl2/BCl3. Dans un premier temps, nous avons effectué une étude de l’influence des conditions opératoires d’un plasma à couplage inductif sur la densité des principales espèces actives de la gravure, à savoir, les ions positifs et les atomes de Cl. Ces mesures ont ensuite été corrélées aux caractéristiques de gravure, en particulier la vitesse de gravure, la rugosité de surface et les propriétés chimiques de la couche mince. Dans les plasmas Ar/Cl2, nos travaux ont notamment mis en évidence l’effet inhibiteur de l’AlO, un composé formé au cours de la croissance de l’AlN par pulvérisation magnétron réactive et non issu des interactions plasmas-parois ou encore de l’incorporation d’humidité dans la structure colonnaire de l’AlN. En présence de faibles traces de BCl3 dans le plasma Ar/Cl2, nous avons observé une amélioration significative du rendement de gravure de l’AlN dû à la formation de composés volatils BOCl. Par ailleurs, selon nos travaux, il y aurait deux niveaux de rugosité post-gravure : une plus faible rugosité produite par la présence d’AlO dans les plasmas Ar/Cl2 et indépendante de la vitesse de gravure ainsi qu’une plus importante rugosité due à la désorption préférentielle de l’Al dans les plasmas Ar/Cl2/BCl3 et augmentant linéairement avec la vitesse de gravure. / A crucial step in the fabrication of high-frequency MEMS is the etching of the columnar AlN thin film acting as the piezoelectric material. Realized in close collaboration with researchers from Teledyne Dalsa, the objective of this master thesis is to better understand the physico-chemical mechanisms driving the etching kinetics and damage formation dynamics during etching of AlN in Ar/Cl2/BCl3 plasmas. In the first set of experiments, we have studied the influence of the operating parameters of an inductively coupled plasma on the number density of the main etching species in such plasmas, namely positive ions and Cl atoms. These measurements were then correlated with the etching characteristics, in particular the etching rate, the surface roughness, and the chemical properties of the AlN layer after etching. In Ar/Cl2 plasmas, our work has highlighted the inhibition effect of AlO, a compound formed during the AlN growth by reactive magnetron sputtering and not from plasma-wall interactions or from the incorporation of moisture in the columnar nanostructure of AlN. In presence of small amounts of BCl3 in the Ar/Cl2 plasma, we have observed a significant increase of the etching yield of AlN due to the formation of volatile BOCl compounds. Furthermore, our work has demonstrated that there are two levels of roughness following etching: a lower roughness produced by the presence of AlO in Ar/Cl2 plasmas which is independent of the etching rate and a larger roughness due to preferential desorption of Al in Ar/Cl2/BCl3 plasmas which increases linearly with the etching rate.

En lien avec l’avancée rapide de la réduction de la taille des motifs en microfabrication, des processus physiques négligeables à plus grande échelle deviennent dominants lorsque cette taille s’approche de l’échelle nanométrique. L’identification et une meilleure compréhension de ces différents processus sont essentielles pour améliorer le contrôle des procédés et poursuivre la «nanométrisation» des composantes électroniques. Un simulateur cellulaire à l’échelle du motif en deux dimensions s’appuyant sur les méthodes Monte-Carlo a été développé pour étudier l’évolution du profil lors de procédés de microfabrication. Le domaine de gravure est discrétisé en cellules carrées représentant la géométrie initiale du système masque-substrat. On insère les particules neutres et ioniques à l’interface du domaine de simulation en prenant compte des fonctions de distribution en énergie et en angle respectives de chacune des espèces. Le transport des particules est effectué jusqu’à la surface en tenant compte des probabilités de réflexion des ions énergétiques sur les parois ou de la réémission des particules neutres. Le modèle d’interaction particule-surface tient compte des différents mécanismes de gravure sèche telle que la pulvérisation, la gravure chimique réactive et la gravure réactive ionique. Le transport des produits de gravure est pris en compte ainsi que le dépôt menant à la croissance d’une couche mince. La validité du simulateur est vérifiée par comparaison entre les profils simulés et les observations expérimentales issues de la gravure par pulvérisation du platine par une source de plasma d’argon. / With the reduction of feature dimensions, otherwise negligible processes are becoming dominant in microfabricated profile evolution. Improved understanding of these different processes is essential to improve the control of the microfabrication processes and to further decrease of the feature size. To help attaining such control, a 2D feature scale cellular simulator using Monte-Carlo techniques was developed. The calculation domain is discretized in square cells representing empty space, substrate or mask of the initial system. Neutral and ion species are inserted at simulation interface from their respective angular and energy distributions functions. Particles transport to the feature surface is calculated while taking into account ion reflection on sidewall and neutral reemission. The particles-surface interaction model includes the different etching mechanisms such as sputtering, reactive etching and reactive ion etching. Etch product transport is also taken into account as is their deposition leading to thin film growth. Simulation validity is confirmed by comparison between simulated profiles and experimental observations issued from sputtering of platinum in argon plasma source.

No description available.

Ce mémoire est la conclusion d'une maîtrise en double diplomation internationale entre l'université Toulouse 3 Paul Sabatier en France et l'université de Montréal au Canada. Le but de cette collaboration est la meilleure compréhension des décharges Sparks dans les liquides diélectriques, ainsi que des phénomènes qui y sont liés. La première partie du projet de recherche, effectuée à Toulouse au laboratoire LAPLACE, s'est concentrée sur l’influence du matériau des électrodes sur le comportement de la décharge, en particulier les caractéristiques courant-tension et la dynamique de la bulle de cavitation via imagerie rapide. Cette partie de travail est incluse dans ce mémoire sous forme d’une Annexe, et nous focalisons l’attention du lecteur uniquement sur les travaux réalisés dans la deuxième partie. En effet, en utilisant une source impulsionnelle de tension, nous avons étudié l’évolution statistique des caractéristiques électriques des décharges Sparks dans différents liquides diélectriques et sous différentes conditions expérimentales, qu'elles soient électriques, géométriques, ou bien liées aux matériaux utilisés. Après une préparation minutieuse des conditions d’une expérience donnée, les impulsions de haute tension ont été appliquées et les caractéristiques des décharges ont été enregistrées. Les enregistrements des caractéristiques électriques, dès la première dé- charge jusqu’à un moment où il n’est plus possible d’avoir des décharges, ont été analysés à l’aide d’un algorithme afin de remonter aux propriétés de chaque décharge, soient la probabilité que la décharge ait eu lieu, la tension de claquage, le courant de décharge, la charge injectée, l’énergie injectée, etc. L’évolution temporelle de ces paramètres ont révélé certaines informations extrê- mement utiles pour les considérer dans les procédés qui utilisent les décharges Sparks dans les liquides à haute répétition, en particulier dans la synthèse de nanomatériaux. / This thesis is the conclusion of a master's degree in an international double graduation between Université Toulouse Paul Sabatier in France and Université de Montréal in Canada. The aim of this collaboration is to better understand the operation of Spark discharges in dielectric liquids, as well as other phenomena linked to it. The first part of this research project, conducted at Toulouse, LAPLACE laboratory, was focused on the influence of the electrode material on the discharge behaviour, in particular the current and voltage waveform and the dynamic of a cavitation bubble monitored with fast imaging technique. This part of the work is included in the thesis as an Annex to focus the reader’s attention only on the work realized in Montréal. Indeed, using a high voltage pulser, we studied the statistical evolution of the electrical characteristics of Sparks discharges in different dielectric liquids and under various experimental conditions, whether they are electrical, geometrical, or related to the material of utilized electrode. After a fine preparation of the conditions for one experience, the high voltage pulses were applied, and discharges were occurred. The acquisition of the discharge electrical characteristics, from the first one to the last one, were analyzed using a home-made algorithm to access the properties of every discharge, i.e. the probability of discharge occurrence, the breakdown voltage, the discharge current, the injected charge, the injected energy, etc. The temporal evolution of those parameters revealed some extremely useful trends to be considered in the processes utilizing in-liquid Spark discharges at high repetition rate, such as in nanomaterial synthesis.

Recently, based on the physics of viscosity, we developed a new technology, which utilizes electric or magnetic fields to change the rheology of complex fluids to reduce the viscosity, while keeping the temperature unchanged. The method is universal and applicable to all complex fluids with suspended particles of nano-meter, sub-micrometer, or micrometer size. Completely different from the traditional viscosity reduction method, raising the temperature, this technology is energy-efficient, as it only requires small amount of energy to aggregate the suspended particles. In this thesis, we will first discuss this new technology in detail, both in theory and practice. Then, we will report applications of our technology to energy science research. Presently, 80% of all energy sources are liquid fuels. The viscosity of liquid fuels plays an important role in energy production and energy conservation. With an electric field, we can reduce the viscosity of asphalt-based crude oil. This is important and useful for heavy crude oil and off-shore crude oil production and transportation. Especially, since there is no practical way to raise the temperature of crude oil inside the deepwater pipelines, our technology may play a key role in future off-shore crude oil production. Electrorehology can also be used to reduce the viscosity of refinery fuels, such as diesel fuel and gasoline. When we apply this technology to fuel injection, the fuel droplets in the fuel atomization become smaller, leading to faster combustion in the engine chambers. As the fuel efficiency of internal combustion engines depends on the combustion speed and timing, the fast combustion produces much higher fuel efficiency. Therefore, adding our technology on existing engines improves the engine efficiency significantly. A theoretical model for the engine combustion, which explains how fast combustion improves the engine efficiency, is also presented in the thesis. / Physics

Recent experimentation with excitation of surface plasmons on a gold film in the Kretschmann configuration have shown what appears to be a superconductive effect. Researchers claimed to see the existence of electron pairing during scattering as well as magnetic field repulsion while twisting the polarization of the laser. In an attempt to explain this, they pointed to a combination of electron-electron scattering in external fields as well as dynamic screening via intense laser radiation. This paper expands upon the latter, taking a look at the properties of a dynamic polarization function, its effects on bulk and surface plasmon dispersion relations, and its various consequences.