Cette thèse a pour but de développer le pendant in silico des étapes clés du Fragment-Based Drug Design (FBDD), et ce dans le cadre plus général du développement de l'outil S4MPLE. Le FBDD génère des ligands drug-like à partir de petites molécules (fragments). Après une étape de validation de S4MPLE et de sa fonction d'énergie, un recentrage autour du FBDD est réalisé, à travers le docking puis l'optimisation virtuelle de fragments par growing ou linking (G/L). Cette stratégie reposesur 1) la création d'une chimiothèque focalisée en connectant un ou deux fragment(s) avec des linkers pré-générés, et 2) l'échantillonnage avec S4MPLE des composés chimères dans le site avec des contraintes. Des simulations de G/L plus ou moins ambitieuses (site flexible, ajout de H2O libres) permettent de valider cette approche avec des études rétrospectives basées sur des données expérimentales. La dernière phase de la thèse a consisté à appliquer ce protocole in silico à un projet de l'entreprise.

Avec plus d’un million et demi de morts chaque année, la tuberculose reste aujourd’hui la seconde cause de mortalité liée à un agent infectieux. De plus l’organisation mondiale de la santé (OMS) a estimé en 2011 qu’un tiers de la population mondiale était porteuse du bacille Mycobacterium tuberculosis responsable de la maladie. Depuis la fin des années 1980, une recrudescence du nombre de cas de tuberculose est observée à l’échelle mondiale. Cette recrudescence est due à la fois à l’apparition de souches résistantes, mais également à l’épidémie de VIH qui est un facteur de prédisposition au déclenchement de la maladie.En 2000, le répresseur transcriptionnel mycobactérien EthR a été identifié comme étant un régulateur clé dans la bioactivation de l’éthionamide (ETH), un antituberculeux utilisé pour le traitement de seconde intention. En 2009, l’inhibition de ce répresseur par le développement de molécules « drug-like » a permis de potentialiser l’activité de l’éthionamide d’un facteur 3 chez la souris infectée et a permis de valider cette cible pour une future approche thérapeutique.Ce travail repose sur la découverte et l’optimisation de nouveaux inhibiteurs de ce répresseur transcriptionnel mycobactérien, à partir d’une petite molécule appelée « fragment » qui a été cocristallisée avec la protéine. Par la combinaison d’un criblage in silico, d’un criblage in vitro des touches identifiées, de l’étude des structures radiocristallographiques des complexes ligands/protéines et de la chimie médicinale, le développement de trois approches complémentaires dites « fragmentgrowing », « fragment-merging » et « fragment-linking » a permis de développer des composés présentant de fortes activités. Ces résultats permettront très prochainement de sélectionner une nouvelle molécule issue de ce travail dans la perspective de nouveaux essais sur le modèle murin. / Tuberculosis (TB) remains the leading cause of death due to a single infective agent with more than 1.5 million people killed each year. In 2011, the world health organization (WHO) estimated that one third of the world’s population is infected with Mycobacterium tuberculosis, the pathogen responsible for the disease. This phenomenon may be due to an explosive escalation of TB incidence that occurred in the 1980s due to the emergence of both resistant strains and HIV epidemic.In 2000, EthR, a mycobacterial transcriptional repressor, was identified as a key modulator of ethionamide (ETH) bioactivation. ETH is one of the main second-line drugs used to treat drug resistant strains. In 2009, it was shown that co-administration of ETH and drug-like inhibitors of EthR was able to boost ETH activity threefold in a mouse-model of TB-infection, thus validating the target for a new therapeutic strategy.This work deals with the discovery and optimisation of new EthR inhibitors, based on a small molecule, called a “fragment”, co-crystallized with the protein. We combined in silico screening, in vitro evaluation of the hit compounds, study of co-crystal structures and medicinal chemistry to develop three complementary approaches called “fragment growing”, “fragment merging” and “fragment linking” that led to the discovery of very potent inhibitors. Based on these results, we are currently selecting a potential candidate for new in vivo experiments.

Phosphatases of the haloacid dehalogenase superfamily are one of the cell's tools for dephosphorylation of many diverse endogenous and exogenous compounds. This work is aimed at enzymes Tt82 and cytosolic purine 5'-nucleotidase II (cN-II), two members of this large enzyme superfamily. The Tt82 originates in the hyperthermophilic archaeon Thermococcus thioreducens. Up to date, there is only a small amount of knowledge about properties and biological function of this enzyme. Based on its sequence and structure, it was predicted that the Tt82 should possess a phosphatase catalytic activity. Consequently, potential substrates of the Tt82 were proposed by the molecular docking. In this work, the phosphatase activity of the Tt82 was confirmed together with several of its substrates: AMP, D-glucose 1-phosphate, D-glucose 6-phosphate and p-nitrophenyl phosphate (pNPP). Activity towards AMP and pNPP was then characterized by steady-state kinetics at 37 řC and 60 řC. In consistence with its thermophilic origin, the Tt82 showed markedly higher activity towards both substrates at 60 řC. Nonetheless, the effectivity of the Tt82 catalytic activity towards these substrates was actually very low. This leads to assumption, that the identified substrates are probably not biologically relevant. On the other hand, it is quite...

The N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor (NMDAR) hypofunctional hypothesis is believed to explain one of the contributing factors to schizophrenia. This hypothesis suggests the dysregulation of NMDAR, a protein responsible for receiving signals from the synapses between neurons, is the cause of some of the symptoms seen in schizophrenia. The post synaptic density protein 95 (PSD95) uses its PDZ-domains to help facilitate the received signal from NMDAR to α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid receptor (AMPAR) which in turn transmits the signal through the neuron. One way to increase the function of NMDAR could be to increase its affinity towards PDZ-domains of PSD95 using a small molecule. Fragment based drug design (FBDD) is one way to screen for molecules that modulates the NMDAR-PDZ interaction. This work describes the development of differential scanning fluorimetry (DSF) and surface plasmon resonance (SPR) assays using a fusion protein to screen for molecules that potentiate the interaction between NMDAR and AMPAR as well as methods assisting in the prioritization of hits based on both affinity, selectivity, and mechanism. The developed assays were used to screen a library containing 768 compounds. Screen positives and other compounds of interest were triaged and evaluated based on affinity, selectivity, and ability to modulated peptide binding resulting in eight confirmed hits that interacts with the two PDZ-domains of PSD95 investigated. As part of this work, the dissociation constant (KD) was determined for a panel of peptides representing versions of the truncated NMDAR GluN2b-subunit C-terminal towards PDZ1 and 2 of PSD95.

The thesis describes over-expression, purification and crystallization of three proteins from Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus). S. aureus is an important human pathogen and methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA) is a serious problem in hospitals nowadays. The crystal structure of 3-Methyladenine DNA glycosylase I (TAG) was determined by single-wavelength anomalous diffraction (SAD) method. TAG is responsible for DNA repair and is an essential gene for both MRSA and methicilin-susceptible S. aureus (MSSA). The structure was also determined in complex with 3-methyladenine (3-MeA) and was solved using molecular replacement (MR) method. An assay was carried out and the molecular basis of discrimination between 3-MeA and adenosine was determined. The native crystal structure of fructose 1-phosphate kinase (PFK) from S. aureus was determined to 2.30 Å and solved using molecular replacement method. PFK is an essential enzyme involved in the central metabolism of MRSA. Despite extensive efforts no co-complex was determined, although crystals were obtained they diffracted poorly. An assay which can be used to test for inhibitors has been developed. Mevalonate Kinase (MK) is another essential enzyme in MRSA and is a key drug target in the mevalonate pathway. Native data diffracting to 2.2 Å was collected. The structure was solved using multiple isomorphorus replacement (MIR) method. A citrate molecule was bound at the MK active site, arising from the crystallization condition. The citrate molecule indicates how substrate might bind. The protein was kinetically characterized. A thermodynamic analysis using fluorescence-based method was carried out on each protein to investigate binding interactions of potential fragments and thus a drug design starting point.

La dihyrofolate réductase de type II R67 (DHFR R67) est une enzyme bactérienne encodée par un plasmide donc aisément transmissible. Elle catalyse la réaction de réduction du dihydrofolate (DHF) en tétrahydrofolate (THFA) essentiel pour la prolifération cellulaire. La DHFR R67 est une enzyme qui dépend du cofacteur NADPH. La DHFR R67 est différente, structurellement et génétiquement, de l’enzyme DHFR chromosomale présente chez tous les organismes et elle est résistante au triméthoprime (TMP) qui est largement utilisé dans les traitements antibactériens chez l’Homme. Aucun inhibiteur sélectif contre la DHFR R67 n’est actuellement répertorié. Le but de cette étude a été d’identifier des molécules qui pourront inhiber la DHFR R67 sélectivement, sans affecter la DHFR humaine (DHFRh). La vérification de la qualité des essais enzymatiques en conditions déterminées pour le criblage d’inhibiteurs sur plusieurs lectrices à plaques a identifié des appareils appropriés pour l’analyse. L’étude de l’activité enzymatique de la DHFR R67 et de la DHFRh en présence des solvants organiques et liquides ioniques (LIs), comme des co-solvants pour le criblage rationnel d’inhibiteurs, a montré que certains LIs peuvent servir de milieu alternatif pour les essais enzymatiques. Le criblage rationnel basé sur l’approche du design d’un inhibiteur à partir de petites molécules, a révélé des molécules primaires qui inhibent la DHFR R67 de façon faible, mais sélective. Le test des composés biologiquement actifs qui comprennent des petits fragments, a montré l’augmentation de l’affinité entre la DHFR R67 et les composés testés. Trois composés ont été déterminés comme des inhibiteurs sélectifs prometteurs pour la DHFR R67. / Type II R-plasmid encoded dihyrofolate reductase (DHFR), R67 DHFR is a bacterial enzyme that catalyzes the reduction of dihydrofolate (DHF) to tetrahydrofolate (THFA) which is essential for cell proliferation. R67 DHFR is an enzyme that depends on the cofactor NADPH as the hydride donor. R67 DHFR is distinct, structurally and genetically, from E. coli chromosomal DHFR (DHFR Ec) and it provides drug resistance to the widely-administered antibiotic trimethoprim (TMP). No selective inhibitor against R67 DHFR exists currently. The goal of this study was to discover molecules that can selectively inhibit R67 DHFR, without affecting human DHFR (hDHFR). Verification of the quality of enzyme assays under defined conditions for inhibitor screening on plate readers found several appropriate instruments for analysis. The study of the enzymatic activity of R67 DHFR and hDHFR in the presence of organic solvents and ionic liquids (ILs), as co-solvents for rational screening of inhibitors, showed that ILs can provide alternative media for enzymatic assays. Rational screening based on the approach of fragment-based drug design, revealed primary molecules that inhibited DHFR R67 weakly, but selectively. The testing of more complex compounds with known biological activities gave ligands with increased affinity for R67 DHFR. Three compounds were identified as promising selective inhibitors for R67 DHFR.

La dihyrofolate réductase de type II R67 (DHFR R67) est une enzyme bactérienne encodée par un plasmide donc aisément transmissible. Elle catalyse la réaction de réduction du dihydrofolate (DHF) en tétrahydrofolate (THFA) essentiel pour la prolifération cellulaire. La DHFR R67 est une enzyme qui dépend du cofacteur NADPH. La DHFR R67 est différente, structurellement et génétiquement, de l’enzyme DHFR chromosomale présente chez tous les organismes et elle est résistante au triméthoprime (TMP) qui est largement utilisé dans les traitements antibactériens chez l’Homme. Aucun inhibiteur sélectif contre la DHFR R67 n’est actuellement répertorié. Le but de cette étude a été d’identifier des molécules qui pourront inhiber la DHFR R67 sélectivement, sans affecter la DHFR humaine (DHFRh). La vérification de la qualité des essais enzymatiques en conditions déterminées pour le criblage d’inhibiteurs sur plusieurs lectrices à plaques a identifié des appareils appropriés pour l’analyse. L’étude de l’activité enzymatique de la DHFR R67 et de la DHFRh en présence des solvants organiques et liquides ioniques (LIs), comme des co-solvants pour le criblage rationnel d’inhibiteurs, a montré que certains LIs peuvent servir de milieu alternatif pour les essais enzymatiques. Le criblage rationnel basé sur l’approche du design d’un inhibiteur à partir de petites molécules, a révélé des molécules primaires qui inhibent la DHFR R67 de façon faible, mais sélective. Le test des composés biologiquement actifs qui comprennent des petits fragments, a montré l’augmentation de l’affinité entre la DHFR R67 et les composés testés. Trois composés ont été déterminés comme des inhibiteurs sélectifs prometteurs pour la DHFR R67. / Type II R-plasmid encoded dihyrofolate reductase (DHFR), R67 DHFR is a bacterial enzyme that catalyzes the reduction of dihydrofolate (DHF) to tetrahydrofolate (THFA) which is essential for cell proliferation. R67 DHFR is an enzyme that depends on the cofactor NADPH as the hydride donor. R67 DHFR is distinct, structurally and genetically, from E. coli chromosomal DHFR (DHFR Ec) and it provides drug resistance to the widely-administered antibiotic trimethoprim (TMP). No selective inhibitor against R67 DHFR exists currently. The goal of this study was to discover molecules that can selectively inhibit R67 DHFR, without affecting human DHFR (hDHFR). Verification of the quality of enzyme assays under defined conditions for inhibitor screening on plate readers found several appropriate instruments for analysis. The study of the enzymatic activity of R67 DHFR and hDHFR in the presence of organic solvents and ionic liquids (ILs), as co-solvents for rational screening of inhibitors, showed that ILs can provide alternative media for enzymatic assays. Rational screening based on the approach of fragment-based drug design, revealed primary molecules that inhibited DHFR R67 weakly, but selectively. The testing of more complex compounds with known biological activities gave ligands with increased affinity for R67 DHFR. Three compounds were identified as promising selective inhibitors for R67 DHFR.

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Viral proteases play crucial roles in the life cycle and maturation of many viruses by processing the viral polyprotein after translation and in some cases cleaving host proteins associated with the immune response. The essential role of viral proteases makes them attractive therapeutic targets. In this thesis, I provide an introductory summary of viral proteases, their structure, mechanism, and inhibition, while the breadth of this thesis focuses on the Hepatitis C virus (HCV) NS3/4A and Zika virus (ZIKV) NS2B/NS3 viral proteases. HCV NS3/4A protease inhibitors (PIs) have become a mainstay in combination therapies. However, drug resistance remains a major problem against these PIs. In this thesis, I applied insights from the HCV substrate envelope (SE) model to develop strategies for designing PIs that are less susceptible to resistance. Also, I used the HCV NS3/4A protease as a model system to decipher the molecular mechanism and role of fluorination in HCV PIs potency and drug resistance. The drug design strategies described in this thesis have broad applications in drug design. The ZIKV is an emerging global threat, and currently, with no treatment available. In this thesis, I described the discovery, biochemical and antiviral evaluation of novel noncompetitive quinoxaline-based inhibitors of the ZIKV NS2B/NS3 protease. The inhibitors are proposed to interfere with NS2 binding to NS3, thereby preventing the protease from adopting the closed and active conformation. The inhibitors from this work will serve as lead compounds for further inhibitor development toward the goal of developing antivirals.