Sammenfatning Baggrund: Silversplints som behandling af hypermobilitet i fingrene hos personer med Ehlers-Danlos syndrom (EDS), er blevet mere udbredt i Danmark igennem de sidste 10 år, men der findes endnu ingen publicerede artikler om denne ortosebehandling og målgruppe. EDS er en gruppe sjældne heterogene bindevævssygdomme der kendetegnes ved generel hypermobilitet og smerte. Silversplints er håndlavede finger- og håndledsskinner af sølv, der er opbygget som et 3-punkts kraftsystem, der kan støtte og korrigere hypermobile led, modvirke fejlstillinger, samt begrænse bevægeligheden af fingrene. Formål: Bacheloropgaven har til formål at undersøge hvordan personer med EDS oplever at have silversplints på og hvilke vanskeligheder de oplever at have i hverdagen ud fra ICF. Metode: Bacheloropgaven anvender semi-structured interviews for at undersøge hvordan 3 deltagere med EDS oplever silversplints som behandling af hypermobilitet i fingrene. Den teoretiske referenceramme er Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis, som er en induktiv tilgang og iterativ proces. Resultat: Ud fra analysen opstod følgende 4 temaer: jeg er ikke min sygdom, energiforbrug, smertens mange ansigter, et farverigt liv. Gennem disse temaer gives et indblik i den positive effekt silversplints kan have for nogle personer med EDS. Anvendelsen af ICF viste at især funktionsevnen blev påvirket. Dette indebærer at kroppens funktioner og anatomi opleves vanskeligt, hvilket fører til begrænsninger i deltagernes mulighed for aktivitet og deltagelse. Konklusion: De identificerede temaer demonstrerer silversplints effekt på deltagernes mentale og fysiske helbred, samt giver et detaljeret billede af deltagernes oplevede problemer og funktionsevne, med og uden silversplints. Bacheloropgaven identificerer hvilke dele, kategorier og domæner indenfor ICF, personer med EDS oplever som problematiske, hvilket kan anvendes til at skabe et core set i videre forskning. / Abstract Background: Silversplints as orthotic management of finger hypermobility for people with Ehlers-Danlos Syndrome (EDS) has become more widespread in Denmark during the last 10 years, but no articles has yet been published about this orthotic management and population. EDS is a group of rare heterogeneous connective tissue disorders which is characterized by general hypermobility and pain. Silversplints are handmade finger and wrist splints made of silver, which are structured as 3-point force systems, which supports, corrects hypermobile joints, and corrects deformities as well as limits the movement of the fingers. Purpose: The aim of the thesis is to explore how people with EDS experience the use of silversplints and which difficulties they experience in their daily life based on ICF. Methods: The thesis uses semi-structured interviews to explore how 3 participants with EDS experience silversplints as orthotic management of hypermobility in the fingers. The theoretical framework is Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis, which is an inductive approach and iterative process. Results: From the analysis 4 themes emerged: I am not my disorder, energy consumption, the many faces of pain, a colorful life.  Through these themes an insight is gained into the positive effects silversplints may display for some people with EDS. The use of ICF showed that especially functioning and disability was affected. This involves that the body functions and structures are experienced as difficult, which leads to limitations in the participants possibility of activities and participation. Conclusion: The identified themes demonstrates silversplints’ effect on the participants mental and physical health, as well as provides a detailed picture of the participants’ experienced problems and functional capability, with and without silversplints. The thesis identifies which parts, categories, and domains within ICF, people with EDS experience as problematic, which can be used to generate a core set for further research.

Elever med svag teoretisk begåvning beskrivs ha svårt att nå kunskapsmålen i grundskolan. I föreliggande studie är syftet att beskriva och analysera specialpedagogers upplevelser av elevhälsans arbete med samverkan och lärares undervisning för elever med svag teoretisk begåvning i grundskolan. Studiens frågeställningar handlar om hur specialpedagoger beskriver kännetecken på svag teoretisk begåvning samt om hur de beskriver sina upplevelser av samverkan och lärares undervisning för dessa elever. Studiens teoretiska utgångspunkt är det salutogena perspektivet på hälsa och lärande och har genomförts utifrån en kvalitativ ansats med hjälp av semistrukturerade intervjuer. I resultatet framgår att det är viktigt att uppmärksamma elever med svag teoretisk begåvning och deras svårigheter samt att öka kunskapen om undervisning för dem. Det framkommer även att interprofessionell samverkan i elevhälsan är en framgångsfaktor som leder till utveckling och lärande för eleverna när samtliga kompetenser tas tillvara. Dessutom framkommer det att tillgängliga lärmiljöer och tydliggörande pedagogik är gynnsamt för elever i allmänhet och för den här elevgruppen i synnerhet samt att elever med svag teoretisk begåvning har svårt att nå kunskapsmålen i grundskolan. Det leder till frågan om huruvida undervisningen i grundskolan lever upp till att ge alla eleverförutsättningar att nå kunskapsmålen.

Doctor of Philosophy / Department of Family Studies and Human Services / Briana S. Goff / The purpose of the current study is to understand the lived experiences of military couples regarding the effects of war-related trauma and deployment on couple functioning. An interpretive phenomenological perspective was utilized during data analysis. This type of phenomenological perspective suggests that human phenomena can only be understood in a situated context (Packer & Addison, 1989). This is to suggest that a person’s emotions, behaviors, and experiences cannot be separated from the context in which they occur. For the purpose of this study, the “context” under consideration was the Army culture and customs in which each of the participant couples was embedded. The Couple Adaptation to Traumatic Stress Model (CATS; Nelson Goff & Smith, 2005) offers a constructive step forward in systemically understanding and treating the impediments created by war-related trauma and deployment. The current study utilized the core terms included in the CATS Model (Nelson Goff & Smith, 2005) as sensitizing concepts to guide the qualitative analysis process. This includes the CATS Model couple functioning variables of attachment, satisfaction, stability, adaptability, support/nurturance, power, intimacy, communication, conflict, and roles. Using qualitative interviews from 90 participants (n = 45 couples), five themes were identified as salient, including communication, conflict management, roles, support/nurturance, and post-traumatic growth. Participants were divided into subgroups (n = 15 couples, 30 total participants) according to their scores on the Purdue Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder Scale – Revised (PPTSD-R; Lauterbach & Vrana, 1996) and the Dyadic Adjustment Scale (DAS; Spanier, 1976). This subsample was selected to examine differences in themes among couples with high and low levels of marital satisfaction, as well as those with high and low levels of post-traumatic stress symptoms. Many similarities were found among the couples with high marital satisfaction and those with low levels of post-traumatic symptoms. Likewise, similarities were also discovered among the couples with lowest levels of marital satisfaction and those with highest levels of post-traumatic stress symptoms. From the current study, there is clear evidence in support of the CATS Model elements of communication, conflict, roles, support/nurturance, and satisfaction. A new contribution to the CATS Model can be made from the current study, which is the inclusion of post-traumatic growth.

Educators experience numerous daily challenges in the classroom, including learner problem behaviour. Within the classroom, problem behaviour is defined as any behaviour that interferes in the flow of the lesson. How educators experience problem behaviour, and how they manage interactions with learners who display problem behaviour in the classroom, impact on both educator and learner functioning. Difficulties in managing learner problem behaviour are viewed as a contributing cause of educator burnout, as well as educators leaving the field. Adolescent problem behaviour is particularly difficult for educators, as adolescence is often characterised by risk-taking behaviour and testing social boundaries, which may negatively affect both educator functioning and adolescent scholastic development. The importance of supporting educators to function effectively, including dealing with adolescent problem behaviour efficiently, should not be understated, as it impacts on both educator and adolescent well-being. With this in mind, this study aimed to explore educators’ experience of interactions with adolescents who display problem behaviour in the classroom, interpreted from the perspective of emotional intelligence, with the aim of identifying educator EI skills during interactions. Emotional intelligence (EI), as a sub-field of positive psychology, was used as the theoretical framework for this study, and was also utilised to identify possible effectively and low-functioning EI skills used by educators during interactions with adolescents who display problem behaviour. The literature study included background on educators’ experience of learner problem behaviour, details on the theoretical framework of the study, and on adolescence and adolescent development. This qualitative study used a descriptive and explorative design, gathering data from three high schools in the southern suburbs of the City of Cape Town. Educators (27) of both genders participated in the study by completing structured interview sheets, or participating in a focus group discussion and/or personal, in-depth interview. The educators were all adequately qualified, teaching grades 8/9 at the time of the study, were from varying cultural and socio-economic backgrounds, and had been teaching adolescents for more than one year. The structured interview, focus group discussion and personal interview questions were directed by one main question, namely: “How do you experience interactions with adolescents who display problem behaviour in the classroom?” Additional probing questions were also utilized. A generic version of thematic analysis was applied using both inductive and deductive methods of data analysis. From the inductive analysis, the following main themes emerged, contributing towards understanding the experiences of the educators’ interactions with adolescents who display problem behaviour: educators experience interactions as excessively disruptive of teaching and intense negative feelings during interactions in the classroom, which can negatively affect teaching. They also experience awareness of their own influence on interactions, which consequently influences the choice of strategy used to deal with adolescent problem behaviour. Feelings of inadequacy due to lack of insight into contextual background of the adolescents, reducing ability to provide adequate support for adolescents, were also found to be prominent. Secondary, deductive analysis was conducted using the EI model of Bar-On (2006; 2011) to investigate and interpret educator interactions with adolescents. The aim was to identify effectively or low-functioning educator EI skills used by the educators in the interactions. Flexibility, problem solving, impulse control, emotional self-awareness, reality testing, empathy and interpersonal relationship skills were identified as effectively functioning educator EI skills. Possible low-functioning EI skills were also identified: problem solving, emotional self-awareness, stress tolerance, impulse control, flexibility and self-regard. Understanding how educators experience interactions with adolescents who display problem behaviour, is the first step in the direction of effective management thereof. Findings of this study are considered in the light of international and South African research and found mostly to concur with this literature, in that educators experience problem behaviour as a serious difficulty in the classroom, especially behaviour that disrupts teaching and learning. The findings on effective use of educator EI skills are also significant, as EI has globally become an influential field within education and psychology regarding the enhancement of individuals’F personal and professional functioning. In light of findings, and seeing as literature indicates that EI skills can in fact be learnt and developed, future studies on educator functioning using EI, including the management of adolescent problem behaviour, are recommended. Further recommendations include strengthening and supporting low-functioning EI skills of educators, and including EI in educator training and development programs. Considering the importance of the classroom environment for healthy educator and adolescent functioning, supporting educators in effective management of adolescent problem behaviour in the classroom is essential, and can ultimately have positive effects on the scholastic experience of both educators and adolescents. / MA (Psychology), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2015

Approximately forty percent of youths’ waking hours are unrestricted and not committed to activities such as eating, sleeping or going to school. Many of this free time is spent without companionship or supervision from adults, which puts them at risk of spending their time out on the streets, where the risk of succumbing to peer pressure and becoming involved in inappropriate or illegal activities is increased. The absence of structured activities, stimulation and support can lead to youth becoming involved in rebellious and unwanted behaviour, partly due to their continuous search for adventure and excitement. Learners with Mentally Mild Learning Disabilities (MMLD) can be seen as youth at risk because of their academic and behavioural problems. Learning disabilities can increase the risk factors for delinquency and substance dependence. Previous research suggests that adventure-based experiential programmes (AEPs), which are highly structured, can thus be a very powerful intervention or prevention medium to empower youth at risk to overcome obstacles through the acquisition and practise of skills. The purpose of the study was firstly to determine what the personal functioning profile of MMLD youth looks like, which was done in order to gain insight into the different aspects of the personal functioning, which were focused on when developing the AEP. The study was secondly done to determine what the role of an AEP is on the personal functioning of learners with MMLD. Books, journals, dissertations, theses and internet sources were used to do a thorough literature review. The literature review was done in order for readers to understand the link between MMLD youth and an AEP. The literature review gave an introduction to the phenomenon of MMLD youth and also explained how an AEP could be beneficial towards them. A qualitative research design was used by the researcher in the form of an instrumental case study. Case studies make it possible for the researcher to use qualitative as well as quantitative constructs for data gathering purposes. Sampling of participants was done in two steps. A school for Learners with Special Education Needs (LSEN) (Die Wilge High School) was sampled through purposeful sampling by means of criterion-based sampling techniques. The second step was to sample fourteen male learners from Die Wilge High School through purposive sampling. The personal functioning was determined by using the Youth at Risk Assessment Scale (YAR3) Questionnaire 3. The researcher made use of semi-structured, one-on-one interviews and field notes in order to gather data. The field notes and transcribed interviews were analysed in order to obtain a clear picture of the content, which was then used to identify the codes. After the data was analysed four main themes, each with its own categories, were identified. The themes related to the personal functioning of the youth and consisted of interpersonal relationships, trust, self-worth and perseverance. The learners had positive feedback regarding their interpersonal relationships, trust, self-worth and perseverance before participation in the AEP. This was attributed to the Strengths-based Approach which the researcher followed in the development of the AEP. Despite this positive feedback, the learners still felt that there was an improvement after the AEP in all of the areas. Most of the learners attributed the improvement to learning more about each other, learning to work together and building friendships among each other. These new found friendships made it easier to trust each other and believe in themselves. The learners also realised that they experienced more positive feelings from persevering than when they quit. The results were used to discuss the objective of the study and to determine if the researcher met the objective. / MA (Recreational Science), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2015

Monogeneans are mainly ectoparasitic on fish, but the family Polystomatidae radiated onto tetrapods and can be found on the skin and gills of the Australian lungfish, in the urinary bladder of frogs, gills and skin of salamanders, cloaca and phalodeum of caecileans, on the eye, nostrils, mouth, cloaca or urinary bladder of freshwater turtles, and on the eye of the hippopotamus. These host organisms are ecologically related through their association with freshwater habitats that favour parasite transmission. Firm attachment is critical to maintain a close relationship with their hosts. Attachment organs usually comprise of several units that are semi related to each other due to the need to form a functional unit. Interactions between subunits are expected to be under stabilising selection, and therefore hinder evolutionary change. Monogeneans are renowned for their effective posterior attachment structures in the form of hooks or hamuli and suckers that secure them, permanently or semi-permanently, to their hosts. The aim of this study was to investigate the morphology and functioning of attachment organs of selected polystomes representing different genera. A number of genera were selected in the study of attachment structures, genera included: Protopolystoma, Polystoma, Eupolystoma, Neopolystoma, Polystomoides and Oculotrema. Light microscopy and scanning electron microscopy was used to study the external morphology. Histology followed by light microscopy, confocal microscopy and enzyme digestion techniques followed by scanning electron microscopy was used to study the internal morphology. It was found that variation in haptoral components do exist, even among congeners, living for example in the bladder and oral cavity of the same host. Environmental factors relating to host ecology need to be taken into account when studying the morphology of monogenean haptors. Such factors play an important role in the adaptation of monogeneans and have possibly led to the change in microhabitats, which in turn explain the variation of haptoral components between parasites. Not all haptoral structures necessarily function in attachment throughout the entire life of the parasite and different haptoral structures are important for attachment to the host at different developmental stages of the parasite. / PhD, North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2015

Educators experience numerous daily challenges in the classroom, including learner problem behaviour. Within the classroom, problem behaviour is defined as any behaviour that interferes in the flow of the lesson. How educators experience problem behaviour, and how they manage interactions with learners who display problem behaviour in the classroom, impact on both educator and learner functioning. Difficulties in managing learner problem behaviour are viewed as a contributing cause of educator burnout, as well as educators leaving the field. Adolescent problem behaviour is particularly difficult for educators, as adolescence is often characterised by risk-taking behaviour and testing social boundaries, which may negatively affect both educator functioning and adolescent scholastic development. The importance of supporting educators to function effectively, including dealing with adolescent problem behaviour efficiently, should not be understated, as it impacts on both educator and adolescent well-being. With this in mind, this study aimed to explore educators’ experience of interactions with adolescents who display problem behaviour in the classroom, interpreted from the perspective of emotional intelligence, with the aim of identifying educator EI skills during interactions. Emotional intelligence (EI), as a sub-field of positive psychology, was used as the theoretical framework for this study, and was also utilised to identify possible effectively and low-functioning EI skills used by educators during interactions with adolescents who display problem behaviour. The literature study included background on educators’ experience of learner problem behaviour, details on the theoretical framework of the study, and on adolescence and adolescent development. This qualitative study used a descriptive and explorative design, gathering data from three high schools in the southern suburbs of the City of Cape Town. Educators (27) of both genders participated in the study by completing structured interview sheets, or participating in a focus group discussion and/or personal, in-depth interview. The educators were all adequately qualified, teaching grades 8/9 at the time of the study, were from varying cultural and socio-economic backgrounds, and had been teaching adolescents for more than one year. The structured interview, focus group discussion and personal interview questions were directed by one main question, namely: “How do you experience interactions with adolescents who display problem behaviour in the classroom?” Additional probing questions were also utilized. A generic version of thematic analysis was applied using both inductive and deductive methods of data analysis. From the inductive analysis, the following main themes emerged, contributing towards understanding the experiences of the educators’ interactions with adolescents who display problem behaviour: educators experience interactions as excessively disruptive of teaching and intense negative feelings during interactions in the classroom, which can negatively affect teaching. They also experience awareness of their own influence on interactions, which consequently influences the choice of strategy used to deal with adolescent problem behaviour. Feelings of inadequacy due to lack of insight into contextual background of the adolescents, reducing ability to provide adequate support for adolescents, were also found to be prominent. Secondary, deductive analysis was conducted using the EI model of Bar-On (2006; 2011) to investigate and interpret educator interactions with adolescents. The aim was to identify effectively or low-functioning educator EI skills used by the educators in the interactions. Flexibility, problem solving, impulse control, emotional self-awareness, reality testing, empathy and interpersonal relationship skills were identified as effectively functioning educator EI skills. Possible low-functioning EI skills were also identified: problem solving, emotional self-awareness, stress tolerance, impulse control, flexibility and self-regard. Understanding how educators experience interactions with adolescents who display problem behaviour, is the first step in the direction of effective management thereof. Findings of this study are considered in the light of international and South African research and found mostly to concur with this literature, in that educators experience problem behaviour as a serious difficulty in the classroom, especially behaviour that disrupts teaching and learning. The findings on effective use of educator EI skills are also significant, as EI has globally become an influential field within education and psychology regarding the enhancement of individuals’F personal and professional functioning. In light of findings, and seeing as literature indicates that EI skills can in fact be learnt and developed, future studies on educator functioning using EI, including the management of adolescent problem behaviour, are recommended. Further recommendations include strengthening and supporting low-functioning EI skills of educators, and including EI in educator training and development programs. Considering the importance of the classroom environment for healthy educator and adolescent functioning, supporting educators in effective management of adolescent problem behaviour in the classroom is essential, and can ultimately have positive effects on the scholastic experience of both educators and adolescents. / MA (Psychology), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2015

Approximately forty percent of youths’ waking hours are unrestricted and not committed to activities such as eating, sleeping or going to school. Many of this free time is spent without companionship or supervision from adults, which puts them at risk of spending their time out on the streets, where the risk of succumbing to peer pressure and becoming involved in inappropriate or illegal activities is increased. The absence of structured activities, stimulation and support can lead to youth becoming involved in rebellious and unwanted behaviour, partly due to their continuous search for adventure and excitement. Learners with Mentally Mild Learning Disabilities (MMLD) can be seen as youth at risk because of their academic and behavioural problems. Learning disabilities can increase the risk factors for delinquency and substance dependence. Previous research suggests that adventure-based experiential programmes (AEPs), which are highly structured, can thus be a very powerful intervention or prevention medium to empower youth at risk to overcome obstacles through the acquisition and practise of skills. The purpose of the study was firstly to determine what the personal functioning profile of MMLD youth looks like, which was done in order to gain insight into the different aspects of the personal functioning, which were focused on when developing the AEP. The study was secondly done to determine what the role of an AEP is on the personal functioning of learners with MMLD. Books, journals, dissertations, theses and internet sources were used to do a thorough literature review. The literature review was done in order for readers to understand the link between MMLD youth and an AEP. The literature review gave an introduction to the phenomenon of MMLD youth and also explained how an AEP could be beneficial towards them. A qualitative research design was used by the researcher in the form of an instrumental case study. Case studies make it possible for the researcher to use qualitative as well as quantitative constructs for data gathering purposes. Sampling of participants was done in two steps. A school for Learners with Special Education Needs (LSEN) (Die Wilge High School) was sampled through purposeful sampling by means of criterion-based sampling techniques. The second step was to sample fourteen male learners from Die Wilge High School through purposive sampling. The personal functioning was determined by using the Youth at Risk Assessment Scale (YAR3) Questionnaire 3. The researcher made use of semi-structured, one-on-one interviews and field notes in order to gather data. The field notes and transcribed interviews were analysed in order to obtain a clear picture of the content, which was then used to identify the codes. After the data was analysed four main themes, each with its own categories, were identified. The themes related to the personal functioning of the youth and consisted of interpersonal relationships, trust, self-worth and perseverance. The learners had positive feedback regarding their interpersonal relationships, trust, self-worth and perseverance before participation in the AEP. This was attributed to the Strengths-based Approach which the researcher followed in the development of the AEP. Despite this positive feedback, the learners still felt that there was an improvement after the AEP in all of the areas. Most of the learners attributed the improvement to learning more about each other, learning to work together and building friendships among each other. These new found friendships made it easier to trust each other and believe in themselves. The learners also realised that they experienced more positive feelings from persevering than when they quit. The results were used to discuss the objective of the study and to determine if the researcher met the objective. / MA (Recreational Science), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2015

Monogeneans are mainly ectoparasitic on fish, but the family Polystomatidae radiated onto tetrapods and can be found on the skin and gills of the Australian lungfish, in the urinary bladder of frogs, gills and skin of salamanders, cloaca and phalodeum of caecileans, on the eye, nostrils, mouth, cloaca or urinary bladder of freshwater turtles, and on the eye of the hippopotamus. These host organisms are ecologically related through their association with freshwater habitats that favour parasite transmission. Firm attachment is critical to maintain a close relationship with their hosts. Attachment organs usually comprise of several units that are semi related to each other due to the need to form a functional unit. Interactions between subunits are expected to be under stabilising selection, and therefore hinder evolutionary change. Monogeneans are renowned for their effective posterior attachment structures in the form of hooks or hamuli and suckers that secure them, permanently or semi-permanently, to their hosts. The aim of this study was to investigate the morphology and functioning of attachment organs of selected polystomes representing different genera. A number of genera were selected in the study of attachment structures, genera included: Protopolystoma, Polystoma, Eupolystoma, Neopolystoma, Polystomoides and Oculotrema. Light microscopy and scanning electron microscopy was used to study the external morphology. Histology followed by light microscopy, confocal microscopy and enzyme digestion techniques followed by scanning electron microscopy was used to study the internal morphology. It was found that variation in haptoral components do exist, even among congeners, living for example in the bladder and oral cavity of the same host. Environmental factors relating to host ecology need to be taken into account when studying the morphology of monogenean haptors. Such factors play an important role in the adaptation of monogeneans and have possibly led to the change in microhabitats, which in turn explain the variation of haptoral components between parasites. Not all haptoral structures necessarily function in attachment throughout the entire life of the parasite and different haptoral structures are important for attachment to the host at different developmental stages of the parasite. / PhD, North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2015

This study examined the utility of the Trail Making Test Quotient (Trails B/ Trails A) in assessing executive functioning relative to that of common tests of executive function such as the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test, Category Test, and the Stroop Test. The purpose of the current study was to investigate the relationship of the Trail Making Test Quotient (Trails B/ Trails A) with other common tests of executive functioning (i.e., Wisconsin Card Sorting Test, Stroop, Category Test) to determine whether these tests are measuring similar domains of functioning or whether Trail Making Test Quotient (Trails B/ Trails A) offers a more pure measure of executive functioning over and beyond that of Trail Making Test B alone or the difference score, Trail Making Test (Trails B- Trails A). A series of partial correlations were conducted involving the Trail Making Test scores (Quotient, Difference, and B [Raw]), and the scores of the executive functioning measures (Wisconsin Card Sorting Test, Category Test, and Stroop), controlling for age, education, and gender. Trails Quotient, Trails B Raw, and Trails Difference were found to significantly negatively correlate with WCST Total # of Categories. Only Trails B Raw and Trails Difference were found to significantly positively correlate with WCST Perseverative Responses and Category Error. None of the Trail Making Test measures used in this study were found to significantly correlate Stroop Interference. Correlation coefficients were compared to determine the strength of Trails Quotient's relationship with the aforementioned executive functioning measures relative to that of Trails Difference and Trails B Raw. Contrary to the hypotheses of the current study, the Trails Quotient demonstrated a significantly weaker correlation with WCST Total # of Categories, WCST Perseverative Responses, and Category Error than that of Trails Difference and Trails B Raw. Additionally, there were no significant differences in the correlation coefficients of Trails Quotient, Trails Difference, and Trails B Raw with Stroop Interference. However, upon further investigation using exploratory factor analyses, it was discovered that Trails Quotient may have represented a particular component of executive functioning more so than the Trails Difference and Trails B Raw. The results suggest that Trails Quotient offers a unique estimate of executive skill specific to cognitive organization, whereas Trails B Raw and Trails Difference represent multiple executive domains including regulatory and organizational abilities. Clinical practice will benefit from the current study's findings in that assessment of complex executive functioning will be more precise. Future research is needed to determine the utility of the Trails Quotient in identifying specific types and locations of brain injury. Assessment of specific impaired frontal skills common to degenerative dementias and traumatic brain injury may be possible with the use of Trails Quotient contingent upon further research. Future research into the domains of executive functioning and the Trail Making Test should focus on specific skills within regulatory and organizational components, and the development of normative data for Trails Quotient.