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No description available.

The basal ganglia (BG) is known for its function not only in motor modulation but also in action selection and reward learning. There are two major anatomical pathways through the BG, the direct and the indirect pathways. The direct pathway starts from the striatum and then directly projects to the globus pallidus, pars interna (GPi) and the substantia nigra, pars reticulata (SNr) respectively, while the indirect pathway starts from the striatum but then indirectly projects to GPi and SNr through the globus pallidus, pars externa and then to the subthalamic nucleus. In addition, the output from GPi not only projects to the thalamus where it has been proposed to function in motor control, but also to the lateral habenula (LHb) where it has been proposed to function in outcome evaluation. Previous studies have found that there are three major genetically distinct neuron groups in the entopeduncular nucleus (EP) (rodent homologue of the primate GPi): 1) purely glutamatergic neurons projecting to LHb neurons expressing parvalbumin (PVLHb); 2) purely GABAergic neurons projecting to motor thalamic neurons expressing parvalbumin (PVThal); 3) GABA/glutamate co-releasing neurons projecting to LHb neurons expressing somatostatin (SstLHb). In this study, we knocked out the vesicular glutamate transporter 2 in SstLHb neurons through an adeno-associated virus in mice to test for the impact on goal-directed behavior using a probabilistic switching, two-armed bandit task (2ABT). Results obtained from the freely moving, water-restricted somatostatin-cre mice with the vesicular glutamate transporter 2 ablated in SstLHb neurons showed that: 1) there was neither improvement nor decline in their performance on the task; 2) they might be more distracted between trials while more concentrated within a trial; 3) they had an increase in the probability of switching between ports on consecutive trials when uncertainty in the location of the highly rewarded port was maximum compared to the control animals with intact glutamate release from SstLHb neurons to LHb. The success of the viral expression was then confirmed through whole-cell voltage-clamp recordings of postsynaptic neurons of the LHb, receiving projections from SstLHb neurons. In conclusion, our study has suggested that the glutamate release from the GABA/glutamate co-releasing neurons of EP projecting to LHb may play a role in reinforcement learning and motivation to obtain rewards, and the loss of glutamate in the GABA/glutamate co-releasing vesicles results in increasing uptake of GABA into these vesicles, leading to possible rebound burst firing of SstLHb neurons that eventually increases the sensitivity towards low rate of reward-delivery dramatically. / 2026-03-13T00:00:00Z

The two neuron types that initially degenerate with Alzheimer's Disease are the cholinergic projections from the septum to the hippocampus and from the substantia innominata to the cortex, and the somatostatinergic neurons in the hippocampus and cortex. The functional relationship between these two types of neurons was investigated using folic acid, a neuro-excitant, and cysteamine, a somatostatin depleter. Folic acid causes a neuron to fire at a much higher rate than normal (Spector, 1971). Folic acid was injected into either the septum or the substantia innominata, and the long-term effect of the resulting acute hyperactivity of the cholinergic neurons on somatostatin neurons was measured as somatostatin-like immunoreactivity in the hippocampus and cortex. Glutamic acid decarboxylase activity, a marker for gamma-amino butyric acid (GABA) neurons, was also measured because it has been shown to decrease in the cortex after injection of folic acid into the substantia innominata. The administration of folic acid to the cholinergic neurons did not have a significant long-term effect on somatostatin-like immunoreactivity nor glutamic acid decarboxylase activity; therefore, a hyperactivity of the cholinergic neurons did not result in degeneration of GABAergic nor somatostatinergic neurons. Cysteamine causes a short-term depletion of somatostatin. Cysteamine was injected subcutaneously and the effect of an acute decrease of brain somatostatin on the cholinergic neurons was studied by measuring high affinity choline uptake, an indicator of cholinergic activity. Administration of cysteamine had no measured effect on high affinity choline uptake in the hippocampus or frontal cortex; therefore, a depletion of somatostatin did not effect cholinergic activity. The assay for high affinity choline uptake was tested by injection of pentobarbital, a drug known to decrease high affinity choline uptake. We detected a decrease in high affinity choline uptake after pentobarbital administration, indicating that if cysteamine were decreasing high affinity choline uptake, the assay would have detected it. / Master of Science

Mémoire numérisé par la Direction des bibliothèques de l'Université de Montréal. / Le gabapentin est une molécule lipophile dérivée de l'acide y-aminobutyrique (GABA). Ce médicament traverse la barrière hémato-encéphalique, se lie à la sous-unité α2β des canaux calciques voltage-dépendents de type Let réduit l'influx de Ca2+ dans les neurones de rat. Le gabapentin diminue la libération de la sérotonine dans le système nerveux central. Par contre, il n'affecte pas directement les récepteurs sérotoninergiques et ne modifie pas la recapture du neurotransmetteur. Des études animales et cliniques ont démontré que le gabapentin possède des propriétés anticonvulsivantes, anxiolytiques et analgésiques. Si l'activité anticonvulsivante du gabapentin peut être, du moins, en partie, expliquée par son effet inhibiteur sur les canaux calciques de type L, son mécanisme d'action anxiolytique est encore inconnu. A l'encontre des benzodiazépines qui influencent la neurotransmission GABAergique, le gabapentin n'affecte pas directement les cibles moléculaires de cette neurotransmission. L'implication de la neurotransmission sérotoninergique dans l'anxiété est supportée par l'efficacité thérapeutique des agonistes 5-HTIA et des inhibiteurs spécifiques de la recapture sérotoninergique, ainsi que par les propriétés anxiogéniques des agonistes 5-HTrn. Considérant ces observations, nous avons émis l'hypothèse que le gabapentin, en diminuant la libération de la sérotonine centrale, induirait des modifications de la densité des récepteurs 5-HT 1A et 5-HT rn, sans affecter pour autant les transporteurs. Pour évaluer cette hypothèse, nous avons étudié les effets de l'administration chronique du gabapentin sur la radio liaison de ligands spécifiques aux récepteurs 5-HT1A, aux récepteurs 5-HTrn et aux transporteurs sérotoninergiques du rat. Le gabapentin fut administré i.p. pendant 21 jours à 30 mg/kg et à 100 g/kg et comparé au salin. Les études topologiques ont été effectuées par autoradiographie quantitative en utilisant le [3H]citalopram pour la radioliaison aux transporteurs sérotoninergiques, le [3H]8-0HDPAT pour marquer les récepteurs 5-HTIA et le [3H]GR 125743 pour la radioliaison aux récepteurs 5-HTrn. La densité des récepteurs et des sites de recapture de la sérotonine a été évaluée par un analyseur d'images informatisé (MCID™) qui permet une haute résolution dans la quantification des densités optiques de films autoradiographiques. Les régions cérébrales analysées ont été les suivantes : le cortex ( cingulaire, frontal, parietal, enthorinal), le septum (latérodorsal et latérointermédiaire), les noyaux raphé (dorsal et médian), l'hippocampe (CAl,2,3 et DG), la substance noire, le globus pallidus, le noyau accumbens et caudéputamen (rostral et caudal). Nous avons trouvé que le traitement au gabapentin diminue la radioliaison du 8-0HDPAT tritié aux récepteurs 5-HT1A de l'hippocampe (le CAl et DG), du cortex frontal et du septum et réduit aussi la radioliaison du GR 125743 tritié aux 5-HTrn du DG hippocampique. Par contre, ce traitement n'affecte pas la radioliaison aux sites de recapture de la sérotonine. Une interprétation possible de nos résultats est que le gabapentin affecte les récepteurs sérotoninergiques de façon indirecte. En diminuant l'influx calcique dans les canaux calciques centraux, au niveau du cortex frontal, de l'hippocampe (CAl et DG) et du septum, le gabapentin pourrait entraîner une réduction de la libération de la 5-HT. La diminution de ce neurotransmetteur induirait alors une régulation à la baisse des autorécepteurs 5-HTrn dans le DG. Par ailleurs, la diminution de l'entrée du calcium provoquée par le gabapentin pourrait induire une baisse d'affinité des récepteurs 5-HT1A postsynaptiques pour leur ligand spécifique.

Titre de l'écran-titre (visionné le 5 juin 2023) / L'acide γ-aminobutyrique (GABA) est le principal neurotransmetteur inhibiteur du système nerveux central. La réponse à l'activation du récepteur GABA$_{\textup{A}}$ par le GABA est régulée en partie par la concentration intracellulaire d'ions chlorures (Cl⁻). Une basse concentration de Cl⁻ va permettre une hyperpolarisation de la membrane du neurone (influx d'ions chlorures) suivant l'ouverture des récepteurs GABA$_{\textup{A}}$ qui va inhiber le déclenchement des potentiels d'action. Chez l'adulte cette concentration d'est maintenue basse principalement par le KCC2, un cotransporteur de Cl⁻. Une diminution de l'expression du KCC2 à la membrane de neurones a précédemment été démontrée dans plusieurs régions du cerveau de modèles murins de la maladie l'Alzheimer (MA) et de la sclérose latérale amyotrophique (SLA). L'objectif principal de ce projet est de déterminer s'il y une diminution de la force d'extrusion des ions chlorure par le KCC2 chez les neurones dans le contexte de la maladie d'Alzheimer et la sclérose latérale amyotrophique. La concentration de Cl⁻ intracellulaire a été monitorée en utilisant la microscopie à temps de vie de fluorescence (FLIM) combinée avec un senseur basé sur le transfert d'énergie par résonance de fluorescence (FRET), le SuperClomelon. En utilisant un choc potassique extracellulaire, qui induit une entrée soudaine de Cl⁻ dans la cellule, la force d'extrusion du KCC2 fut estimée. La vitesse de l'entrée de Cl⁻ chez les neurones des souris 5xFAD, un modèle de la MA, fut diminuée significativement dans le cortex préfrontal médian et dans l'hippocampe. Une diminution similaire a été observée dans le cortex moteur chez les souris SOD1-G93A et Prp-TDP43$^{\textup{A315T}}$, deux modèles de la SLA. Cette perte de transport de Cl⁻ a pu être retrouvée en utilisant un activateur du KCC2, le PCPZ. Ces résultats indiquent que le KCC2 joue un rôle important dans la perte d'inhibition liée à certaines maladies neurodégénératives et qu'il serait une cible thérapeutique prometteuse. / The γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) is the major inhibitory neurotransmitter in the central nervous system. The GABA$_{\textup{A}}$ receptor response to its activation by GABA is in part regulated by the intracellular chloride concentration. A low chloride concentration will allow a hyperpolarization of the neuron membrane (chloride influx) following the opening of GABA$_{\textup{A}}$ receptors which will inhibit the triggering of action potentials. In adults, this chloride concentration is maintained low mainly by KCC2, a chloride cotransporter. A decrease in KCC2 expression at the membrane of neurons has been previously observed in several brain regions of mouse models of Alzheimer's disease (AD) and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). The main objective of this project is to assess if chloride extrusion through KCC2 is altered in neurons in the context of Alzheimer's disease and ALS. Intracellular chloride concentration was monitored using fluorescence lifetime imaging microscopy (FLIM) combined with a fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET) based sensor, SuperClomeleon. Using an extracellular potassium shock, which is known to induce a sudden entry of chloride into the cell, the extrusion force of KCC2 was estimated. The rate of chloride entry in neurons of 5xFAD mice, a model of AD, was significantly decreased in the medial prefrontal cortex and hippocampus. A similar decrease was observed in the motor cortex of SOD1-G93A and Prp-TDP43A$^{\textup{A315T}}$ mice, both models of ALS. Interestingly, this loss of chloride transport could be recovered using an activator of KCC2, PCPZ. These results indicate that KCC2 plays an important role in the loss of inhibition associated with certain neurodegenerative diseases and that it could be a promising therapeutic target.

Ce travail explore certains mécanismes moléculaires impliqués dans la genèse des dyskinésies induites par la dopa thérapie. Nos travaux ont été effectués sur des échantillons de cerveaux de singes parkinsoniens ayant développé des complications motrices suite au traitement à la Lévodopa. Nos résultats montrent l'absence de corrélation entre les niveaux striataux de l'ARNm de la préprotachykinine et la survenue des dyskinésies et l'existence d'un lien de causalité entre l'augmentation des niveaux striataux des ARNm de la préproenképhaline et de la préprodynorphine ainsi que l'augmentation de la densité des récepteurs GABA-A au niveau des noyaux gris centraux et la physiopathologie de ces dyskinésies. Les traitements adjuvants avec le Ro 61-8048 , l'acide docosahéxaénoïque et le CI-I041 en association avec la Lévodopa, permettent de corriger certains paramètres biochimiques impliqués , dans la genèse de ces complications motrices et de prévenir ces dyskinésies sur le plan comportemental contrairement au Naltrexone qui les a exacerbées.

L'hippocampe est l'endroit central où s'élaborent les processus de mémorisation et d'apprentissage. C'est aussi le siège de plusieurs maladies dégénératives telles que Pépilepsie, l'ischémie et autres désordres psychiatriques. Le récepteur ionotropique GABAA et le co-transporteur KCC2 sont des composants complexes qui résident dans les synapses GABAergiques de l'hippocampe. Leur fonctionnement est régi par une relation de coopération dynamique assurée par des échanges ioniques. Les ions chlorure jouent un rôle prépondérant et leur distribution hétérogène serait un indicateur d'anomalie : pathologie ou trouble de mémorisation. Dans le cadre de cette maîtrise, nous proposons un travail portant sur la modélisation du comportement diffusif des ions chlorure géré par l'action coopérative GABAA et KCC2. Dans une première partie nous présenterons une revue bibliographique sur les fondements de neurobiologie. Nous développerons particulièrement les aspects touchant les phénomènes de connectivité des neurones, de localisation et de structure des différents récepteurs et canaux ioniques. Dans la deuxième partie, nous démontrerons les principes fondamentaux des phénomènes de diffusion. Nous nous limiterons aux cas essentiels de la diffusion macroscopique avec ou sans force externe et à la théorie de la marche aléatoire. Un chapitre sera consacré aux éléments finis, méthode de résolution des équations différentielles partielles, et code Femlab utilisés pour représenter la dynamique des mouvements intermembranaires des ions chlorures. Nous mettrons l'accent sur les exigences et les pièges à éviter pour obtenir un modèle stable et près de la réalité de l'objet. Finalement, nous donnerons les résultats obtenus en modélisation et en simulation. / The hippocampus is the central place where the processes of memorizing and training are worked out. It is also the seat of several degenerative diseases such as the psychiatric disorders, epilepsy and ischaemia. The ligand-gated channel GABAA and the KCC2 cotransporter are complex components which reside in GABAergics synapses of the hippocampus. Their operation is governed by a dynamic relation of co-operation ensured by ionic exchanges. The chloride ions play a dominating part and their heterogeneous distribution would be an indicator of anomaly: pathology or disorder of memorizing. Within the framework of this control, we propose a bearing work on the modeling pf the diffusive behavior of the chloride ions managed by the co-operative action of GABAA and KCC2. In a first part we will present a bibliographical review on the bases of neurobiology. Wc will particularly develop the aspects concerning the phenomena of connectivity of the neurons, localization and structure of the various ionic channels. In the second part, we will show the fundamental principles of the phenomena of diffusion. We will limit ourselves to the essential cases of the macroscopic diffusion with or without external force and to the theory of random walk. A chapter will be devoted to the finite elements, a method of resolution of partial differential equations, and Femlab codes used to represent the dynamics of the intermembrane movements of chloride ions. We will stress the requirements and the traps to avoid to obtain a stable model and close to the reality of the object. Finally, we will give the results obtained in modeling and simulation.

Thesis (MSc (Physiological Sciences))--University of Stellenbosch, 2011. / Includes bibliography. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal-(HPA) axis has long been closely associated with psychological stress-induced activation of the adrenal cortex and subsequent glucocorticoid production. Another, less known peripheral limb of the psychological stress response, is the sympatho adrenal medullary pathway. We hypothesized that the sympatho-adrenal medullary system constitutes the primary response to acute psychological stress, with the HPA-axis functioning as a secondary response. We tested our hypothesis by manipulating a model of acute mild psychological stress (restraint) by blocking IL-6, a valuable constituent of the sympatho-adrenal medullary system. Serum corticosterone concentration increased in response to stress (7 ± 3 vs. 57 ± 4 ng/ml; P<0.0001), a response attenuated when IL-6 was blocked (17 ± 7 ng/ml). Stress increased pituitary mass only when IL-6 was blocked (38 ± 3 vs. 65 ± 6 mg; P <0.001). Stress increased left adrenal mass only in the presence of IL-6 (34 ± 1 vs. 73 ± 8 mg; P <0.00001). Stress did not influence the circulating levels of TNF-α, IL-1β or IL-6 significantly. IL-1β and TNF-α concentrations in the unstressed rats were lower when IL-6 was blocked. We then manipulated the stress model by administering S. frutescens extract to elucidate both the central and peripheral effects of acute S. frutescens administration on the psychological stress response. Restraint caused decreases in hippocampal GR levels when compared to respective controls. S. frutescens administration and exposure to restraint synergistically decreased hippocampal GABAAR levels. In addition, exposure to both stress and S. frutescens led to a noteworthy increase in pituitary mass (P = 0.078), as well as pituitary ACTH levels (P < 0.01). Similarly, differences in circulating ACTH levels showed an effect of stress on ACTH secretion only in the presence S. frutescens (P < 0.05). Adrenal mass was significantly increased in S. frutescenstreated animals that were also exposed to restraint (P < 0.05). Adrenal levels of ACTH showed a reciprocal trend to pituitary and circulating ACTH levels. No statistically significant differences were seen in adrenal IL-6 content. However, marked increases in IL-6 levels were seen at this level with administration of S. frutescens stress exposure and a cumulative increase seen with both S. frutescens-treatment and stress exposure. Hippocampal GABAAR, pituitary mass, pituitary ACTH and circulating ACTH levels showed a similar trend towards a synergistic effect of S. frutescens and restraint in activation of the psychological stress response, while adrenal ACTH levels showed an inverse trend. Hippocampal GR did not show any effect of stress or S. frutescens-treatment. The results from these two experiments indicate that the sympatho-adrenal medullary system constitutes the primary response to acute mild psychological stress and that the HPA-axis is only activated during an exacerbated stress response or when the sympatho-adrenal medullary contribution is inadequate. Furthermore, the acute administration of S. frutescens possibly led to a functional shift in GABAergic function, resulting in activation of the stress response. The anecdotal reports of a “docile” effect of S. frutescens most likely results from activation of the mesolimbic dopaminergic system by the hippocampus and amygdala. These results have dramatic consequence in GABA-based anxiety-treatments. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die hipotalamo-pituïtêre-adrenale (HPA)-as is lank bekend as ‘n primêre rolspeler in die respons op emosionele stres en daaropvolgende glukokortikoïed produksie. ‘n Ander, minder bekende arm van die sielkundige stres respons is die simpatiese bynier-medulla-sisteem. Ons hipotese was dat die laasgenoemde simpatiese bynier-medulla-sisteem die primêre respons tot sielkundige stres behartig terwyl die HPA-as ‘n sekondêre respons bied. Ons het ons hipotese getoets deur die manupilering van ‘n beproefde stres model waar ons IL-6, ‘n waardevolle rolspeler in die simpatiese bynier-medulla-sisteem, onderdruk het. In respons op stress, het serum kortikosteroon konsentrasies toegeneem slegs in die teenwoordigheid van IL-6 (7 ± 3 vs. 57 ± 4 ng/ml; P<0.0001), maar nie wanneer IL-6 onderdruk is nie (17 ± 7 ng/ml). Stres het ‘n verhoging in hipofise massa teweeggebring slegs tydens die onderdrukking van IL-6 (38 ± 3 vs. 65 ± 6 mg; P <0.001). Stres het ook linker-byniermassa verhoog slegs wanneer voldoende IL-6 beskikbaar was (34 ± 1 vs. 73 ± 8 mg; P <0.00001). Stres alleen het geen invloed gehad op serum IL-1β, IL-6 of TNF-α nie, maar die onderdrukking van IL-6 het wel ‘n inhiberende effek op basale IL-1β en TNF-α gehad. Daarna het ons weer eens die stresmodel manipuleer deur die rotte ‘n S. frutescens ekstrak te gee in ‘n poging om beide die sentrale en perifere effekte daarvan op die sielkundige stres respons te evalueer. Stres alleen het gelei tot ‘n afname in GR terwyl ‘n kombinasie van stres en S. frutescens administrasie tot ‘n afname in GABAARα1 in die hippokampus gelei het. Hierdie kombinasie het ook tot ‘n merkwaardige toename in hipofise massa (P = 0.078) sowel as ACTH-inhoud van die hipofise (P < 0.01) gelei. ‘n Soortgelyke patroon is waargeneem betreffende sirkulerende ACTH en byniermassa met P < 0.05 vir elk. Bynier ACTH inhoud, aan die ander kant, het ‘n omgekeerd eweredige verhouding met ACTH in die hipofise en in sirkulasie getoon. Bynier IL- 6 inhoud het geen statisties beduidende verskille getoon nie, maar ‘n merkwaardige verhoging is weereens gesien met ‘n kombinasie van stres en S. frutescens administrasie. Die soortgelyke tendens wat waargeneem word in GABAAR in die hippokampus, asook hipofise- en sirkulerende ACTH vlakke, en dui op ‘n samewerkende rol van stres en S. frutescens in die aktivering van die sielkundige stres respons. GR in die hippokampus toon geen veranderinge nie. Die resultate van die twee eksperimente dui op ‘n primêre rol van die simpatiese bynier-medulla-sisteem in die respons op ‘n akute stressor en dat die HPA-as net geaktiveer word tydens ‘n ooreiste stres reaksie of indien die simpatiese bynier-medulla-sisteem onderdruk word. Die waargenome “verdowings”-effek van S. frutescens word moontlik deur aktivering van die mesolimbiese dopamien pad deur die hippokampus en amigdala bewerkstellig. Die resultate mag ook lei tot die heroorweging van GABA-gebaseerde angs medikasies.

Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is classified as an anxiety disorder and the characteristic symptoms (re-experiencing, avoidance as well as numbing of general responsiveness and hyperarousal) of this disorder develop in response to a traumatic event. The disorder is characterised by hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis abnormalities linked with changes in cortisol moreover, the hippocampus and cortex also play a role in the neurobiology. With regard to the neurochemistry of this disorder it is known that gamma amino butyric acid (GABA) is involved however, the precise role of GABA in PTSD and how stress changes GABA concentrations in the brain are still not fully understood. Another aspect regarding PTSD that has not been clearly defined is the treatment of PTSD. Classic anxiolytics such as diazepam is expected to relieve the anxiety linked with PTSD. Studies with this group of drugs have however not produced the concrete evidence needed to establish it as a treatment of choice for PTSD and subsequently other classes of drugs have been investigated as possible treatment options for PTSD. Among these is lamotrigine, which in a clinical study was found to be effective in alleviating symptoms of PTSD. Moreover, a possible pharmacokinetic-pharmacodynamic relationship for each of these drugs has also not been elucidated. In order to elude on some of these uncertainties, an animal model of PTSD, time dependent sensitisation (TDS), was used. GABA levels in the rat hippocampus and frontal cortex were determined at two different time intervals following the TDS procedure (1 day and 7 days post re-stress). High performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) with electrochemical (EC) detection was used to determine gamma amino butyric acid (GABA) concentrations. To investigate the possible anxiolytic effects of diazepam and lamotrigine in this model, as well as a possible pharmacokinetic-pharmacodynamic relationship for each drug, pharmacokinetic profiles for both drugs were established in order to find the times of peak and trough levels of each drug. Blood samples were collected at different time intervals after drug administration either from the tail vein of rats (lamotrigine) or directly from the heart (diazepam). Subsequently, drug concentrations at each time interval were determined by means of HPLC with ultraviolet (UV) detection. The behaviour of rats was analysed using the elevated plus-maze (EPM) at peak or trough concentrations of the drugs and this was performed after either acute administration of the drug, or after a 14 day chronic treatment regime. GABA levels in the hippocampus were not found to change statistically significantly in response to stress at either 1 day or 7 days post re-stress. In the frontal cortex, however, GABA levels increased in response to stress at 1 day post re-stress, with a statistically insignificant, but strong trend towards an increase, at 7 days post re-stress. With regard to the pharmacokinetic profiles, the peak concentration of diazepam was found to occur at 60 minutes, with lamotrigine's peak at 120 minutes. The behavioural studies indicated that acute treatment with diazepam 3 mg/kg resulted in a statistically significant increase in both ratio open arm entries and ratio time spent in the open arms at peak level of the drug. After acute treatment with diazepam 3 mg/kg a statistically significant decrease in ratio time spent in open arms was also found when the ratio time spent in open arms at peak level of the drug and the ratio time spent in open arms at trough level of the drug was compared. In response to chronic treatment with diazepam 3 mg/kg for 14 days, test animals exhibited an increase in the ratio open arm entries at trough level of the drug, with a statistically insignificant yet definite trend towards an increase at peak level. Acute treatment with lamotrigine 10 mg/kg resulted in no statistically significant change in EPM parameters. In response to chronic treatment, however, a statistically significant increase was found in ratio time spent in open arms at peak level of the drug, with a statistically insignificant trend towards an increase at trough level. From the results of this study, we may therefore conclude that GABA-levels in the brain are definitely affected, but in different ways, following TDS-stress. A pharmacokinetic-pharmacodynamic relationship between the drugs' levels and aversive behaviour could also be established. Furthermore it appears that more sustained anxiolytic effects are evident following chronic treatment with both drugs than with acute administration of these drugs. / Thesis (M.Sc. (Pharmacology))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2006