Magister Artium - MA / The study argues that ukuthwala is an old cultural practice that had been practised in the past by Xhosa people and other tribes. Ukuthwala traditionally does not involve rape, force and underage girls. The media revealed misuse of the ukuthwala practice by men and what these men are doing is purely crime. Ukuthwala is a cultural practise that was used to abduct girls into marriage with the consent of the girl and the parents. In this case the cultural practice of ukuthwala is deemed as one of the factors preventing progress while oppressing the women and children involved as media and government have reported that ukuthwala has markedly resurged in an insidious form that is exploitative and violent (Karimakwenda,2005:340).

Thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in (Community Psychology) in the Department of Psychology, University of Zululand, South Africa, 2012. / The aim of this study was to evaluate a group clay therapy programme that was conducted among teenage girls who have suffered sexual abuse in the rural district of the Free State Province in South Africa. The strength of this programme lies in the fact that it is a group therapy programme, therefore is able to reach a number of subjects at the same time, as opposed to individual consultation, which is a common approach in psychological interventions. Literature shows that the incidence of sexual abuse among young girls is alarmingly high (National Department of Social Welfare, 2004; Bolen, 2001; Conradie & Tanfa, 2005). While government and non-profit organizations try their best to fight this crime, health care delivery is lagging behind. Pillay and Lockhart (1997), identified the shortage of psychologists as one of the reasons for poor delivery of mental health care services to children. Bolen (2001), states that child sexual abuse invades the inner being of a child, and may result in psychopathology, if not treated early. This is of concern to everybody including the government hence a solution is sought in many different forms. The study adopted a quasi-experimental research design. A sample of forty (40) adolescent girls who are survivors of sexual abuse was selected. They were divided into two groups; twenty (20) formed the experimental group, and the other twenty (20) the control group. The experimental group received clay therapy whilst the control group underwent a routine intervention programme that is offered by the health clinic for survivors of sexual abuse. At the end, both groups were evaluated in order to check the difference with regard to their response to these treatments. A higher positive response was observed in the experimental group. This was an indication of the effectiveness of clay therapy. Clay therapy was given for eight sessions. This is taken as brief therapeutic intervention. It therefore minimises time spent in health care facilities. Brief therapies are more effective and helpful with clients of low socio-economic status, simply because some of them lack funds for daily trips to see the therapists, who are usually located in urban areas. The subjects for this research were all from a rural area. Individuals who have suffered traumatic experiences such as sexual abuse, usually find it difficult to express themselves in words because they usually get overwhelmed with emotions. Children also lack vocabulary to express their innermost feelings. Body-based therapies such as clay therapy, are usually successful in accessing thoughts, feelings, and bodily experiences which are all intimately related. Clay therapy is therefore recommended as a therapeutic modality of choice when working with traumatised individuals.A South Africa is made up of nine provinces and the provinces are further divided into districts. v Through poverty, politics, e.g. forced removals, faction fights, etc., and societal factors such as the migrant labour system, marriages and others, people have migrated from their places of origin, so that one finds mixed cultural groups all over the country. A therapeutic modality that reaches a number of clients of different backgrounds at the same time is more relevant. The clay therapy modality reflected no language barriers; all the girls grasped the activities well, even though they were from different cultural groups. Playing with clay is culture friendly, because no level of education is needed to master the art of playing. This makes clay therapy much easier to integrate into child therapies. Confidentiality is also maintained in such therapy because the subjects do not have to talk about their feelings in the group if they do not want to, but they get a chance to interact with people who are of the same age, who have experienced the same trauma as theirs.

This study focused on the types of messages female middle school students receive about their gender from their peers. Specifically, it looked at microaggressions, which are sexist messages from peers, and microaffirmations, which are positive and affirming messages from peers. There were four goals of this study. First, to check if the Students Affirming Girls in Middle School scale (SAG-MS), a scale created for this study, could consistently measure microaggressions and microaffirmations. Second, to look at the relationship between when girls experience puberty and microaggressions and microaffirmations. Third, to measure any differences in the number of microaggressions and microaffirmations girls receive from boys versus other girls. And fourth, to determine if microaffirmations can protect girls’ engagement in school from the negative effects of microaggressions. The participants of this study were 121 female middle or junior high school students who were recruited through Qualtrics, a research sampling service, to complete online surveys. Results of the study showed that the SAG-MS has an acceptable level of internal consistency, meaning that participants responded to items on the scale in a similar manner. Results also showed that when girls experience puberty does not have a significant relationship with how many microaggressions they receive or how many microaffirmations they receive. Middle school girls were also found to receive more microaggressions from boys than other girls and more microaffirmations from other girls than boys. Finally, results showed that girls’ engagement in school went down when they experienced more microaggressions, but if girls’ received many microaffirmations this drop did not occur. These findings suggest that microaggressions are occurring in middle school and that they can lead to decreases in girls’ engagement in school. However, microaffirmations given by peers have the potential to protect middle school girls from experiencing this drop in engagement.

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Sammanfattning Genus i matematikämnet är något det diskuteras om världen över och om hur samhället påverkar uppfattningen avseende genus i matematikämnet. Kunskapsöversikten visar att det finns skillnader avseende genus i matematikämnet, där pojkar visar större framgång i matematik än flickor. Forskningen i denna översikt visar att dagens teknik kan locka elever att uppnå ett jämlikt resultat i matematikämnet. Genom att använda exempelvis appar och programeringsprogram i undervisningen kan ett mer jämlikt resultat uppnås   Syfte Syftet med kunskapsöversikten var att undersöka och sammanställa forskningen avseende genus i matematikämnet. Kunskapsöversiktens frågeställningar formades med syfte för att se om det finns skillnader avseende genus i matematikämnet.   Metod Urvalet av studier inhämtades genom litteratursökning via databasen ERIC ProQuest utifrån olika urvalskriterier. De vetenskapliga studierna vilka granskats är från olika delar av världen och har valts ut genom följande sökord: Gender differences, Mathematics, girls, teaching och Education. Tio studier ligger till grund för denna kunskapsöversikt.   Resultat Utifrån kartläggningen av studierna vilka inkluderas i denna kunskapsöversikt framkommer ett tydligt mönster där studier från olika länder beskriver att flickor ligger efter i matematikämnet jämfört med pojkarna. Det framkommer inte så tydligt när eleverna går i förskoleklassen men redan i första klass börjar skillnader märkas och klyftan ökar sedan med elevernas ålder. I några utav studierna kom forskarna fram till att pojkar identifierar sig med matematik viket inte flickor gör. Motivationen är av stor vikt för elevernas provresultat. Då motivationen följer eleverna vidare i livet, exempelvis när de sedan skall välja utbildnings- och yrkeskarriärer, dessa är då oftast könsbestämda. För att skapa och öka intresset för matematikämnet hos flickor påvisar en studie att det kan tas hjälp av digital teknik exempelvis genom att låta eleverna använda olika appar och på så vis minska skillnaderna avseende genus i matematikämnet.

Negative body image and preoccupation with weight are the norm for most women and girls in Western society, despite their potentially harmful consequences for psychological and physical wellness. While we know that many in this population experience negative feelings towards their bodies, we do not know if their beliefs about their body size are accurate and what effect a correct or incorrect assessment of one's body size has in terms of actual behavior. I examine this question among adolescent girls using data from the 2002 Health Behaviors in School-Age Children Survey. With a sample of 2,784 girls between the ages of 11 and 17, I run Poisson regression models to assess the relationship between actual and perceived body size and healthy versus unhealthy weight control behaviors, controlling for a number of indicators known to be associated with weight control, including parent and peer relationships, media exposure, and age of first menstruation. Results indicate that a discrepancy between actual and perceived body size is associated with increases in both positive and negative weight control behaviors, though the association with negative weight control behaviors is much larger. Starting puberty later is associated with a decrease in both types of these behaviors. Difficult family relationships appear to be more strongly associated with negative weight control than positive weight control. Other associations are discussed and suggestions for future research are offered.

Thesis advisor: Belle Liang / Adolescent girls have reached unprecedented levels of success in today’s society. Simultaneously, many adolescent girls face adversities and their mental health remains a concern (Schramal et al., 2010; Spencer et al., 2018;). Positive Youth Development scholars continues to explore how society can best support adolescent girls as they navigate key developmental milestones (Lerner et al., 2005; Damon, 2004). Importantly, research has solidified a number of benefits of Youth Purpose (i.e., a long-term, committed, directed aspiration, with a prosocial desire). Youth Purpose is considered a key developmental asset, and contributes to thriving. Indeed, having a sense of purpose can serve as a protective factor for individuals and help bolster their overall well-being (Liang et al., 2018; Liang et al, 2017; Damon et al., 2003). Youth purpose along with Post Traumatic Growth can positively impact individuals facing adversities (Kashdan & McKnight, 2009; Tedeschi & Lawrence, 2004). Similarly, mentoring relationships are associated with numerous positive outcomes including the development of purpose (Dubois & Rhodes, 2006; Lerner, 2004; Liang et al., 2017). While youth purpose is well documented (Damon et al., 2003; Hill et al., 2010), there is limited research on purpose development for adolescent girls from marginalized backgrounds. Given the profound benefits of purpose, additional research is warranted on how purpose is cultivated in marginalized adolescent girls. This dissertation sought to expand the literature and better understand how adversity relates to purpose development, during the adolescent years and how mentoring relationships can contribute to this development. Additional research is needed to focus on one of the most vulnerable populations, adolescent girls from marginalized backgrounds, and to discover ways to help protect their mental health and well- being as they continue to thrive in society. This study included 13 interviews with adolescent girls from marginalized backgrounds. Thematic analysis was used to analyze the data and five major themes emerged. Analyses suggested that while these participants experiences endured adverse experiences, they maintained a positive outlook on life, and their future. With the help of their mentors, and through the development of critical consciousness, participants were able to utilize adverse experiences to help inform their sense of purpose. Data was collected during the COVID-19 pandemic. This crucial time period allowed for the collection of exemplary data, which revealed how adolescent girls utilized the pandemic as a time for self-growth, and how they conceptualized their purpose with respect to the pandemic. / Thesis (PhD) — Boston College, 2023. / Submitted to: Boston College. Lynch School of Education. / Discipline: Counseling, Developmental and Educational Psychology.

A problem within science education in the United States persists. U.S students rank lower in science than most other students from participating countries on international tests of achievement (National Center for Education Statistics, 2003). In addition, U.S. students overall enrollment rate in high school Advanced Placement (AP) physics is still low compared to other academic domains, especially for females. This problem is the background for the purpose of this study. This investigation examined cognitive and motivational variables thought to play a part in the under-representation of females in AP physics. Cognitive variables consisted of mathematics, reading, and science knowledge, as measured by scores on the 10th and 11th grade Florida Comprehensive Assessment Tests (FCAT). The motivational factors of attitude, stereotypical views toward science, self-efficacy, and epistemological beliefs were measured by a questionnaire developed with question taken from previously proven reliable and valid instruments. A general survey regarding participation in extracurricular activities was also included. The sample included 12th grade students from two high schools located in Seminole County, Florida. Of the 106 participants, 20 girls and 27 boys were enrolled in AP physics, and 39 girls and 20 boys were enrolled in other elective science courses. Differences between males and females enrolled in AP physics were examined, as well as differences between females enrolled in AP physics and females that chose not to participate in AP physics, in order to determine predictors that apply exclusively to female enrollment in high school AP physics and predictors of an anticipated science related college major. Data were first analyzed by Exploratory Factor Analysis, followed by Analysis of Variance (ANOVA), independent t-tests, univariate analysis, and logistic regression analysis. One overall theme that emerged from this research was findings that refute the ideas that females have lower achievement scores, lower attitude, lower self-efficacy, and more stereotypical views regarding science than males. Secondly, the only significant differences found between males and females enrolled in AP physics were for stereotypical views toward science and one factor from the epistemological views questions, both of which favored females. Although the non AP boys significantly outscored non AP girls on science FCAT scores, the only other significant differences found between these groups of students were related to attitude, with the girls scoring higher than the boys on both counts. There were significant differences found for numerous variables between AP and non AP females, however, most of the same differences were found between the two ability groups of male students as well. This leads to the conclusion that these factors certainly play an important role in AP physics enrollment for both genders. But the few significant differences found exclusively between the two female ability groups; reading ability, stereotypical views toward science, and the epistemological beliefs regarding branches of physics being related by common principles and aspects of physics need to be inferred instead of directly measured, may play a more important role in increasing enrollment numbers of females.

The Botswana HIV/AIDS epidemic started in the early 1990s, with the proportion of the overall population infected with HIV (prevalence) rapidly escalating to 28.2% by the year 2000. Today, HIV prevalence has decreased to 23%, yet Botswana has the third highest percentage of HIV infected population in the world. The HIV epidemic in Botswana is in need of attention, but prevalence alone does not represent the full picture. HIV incidence (the rate of new infections and a critical indicator of success of HIV prevention programs) peaked in Botswana around 1996 at 5.7% and has declined to about 2.72% today. Botswana's two most effective programs in its response to the epidemic have been provision of universal HIV treatment and prevention of mother-to-child-transmission (PMTCT) programs, which have achieved over 95% coverage for all eligible patients. These two programs largely account for Botswana's rapid decline in HIV prevalence and incidence rates. However, females have continually had higher rates of prevalence and incidence than males throughout the course of Botswana's epidemic. In order to continue these declining rates of infection, Botswana may consider redoubling its efforts around HIV prevention. Women and young adolescent girls have not been the main beneficiaries of prevention programs. Women are more susceptible to HIV infection biologically and more vulnerable to infection due to social determinants, most notably their lack of empowerment and control in sexual partnerships. The main social drivers of the HIV epidemic in Botswana have been concurrent partnerships, sexual assault, cross-generational sex, and transactional sex. These drivers increase risk of HIV infection particularly for women. Botswana has implemented promising national prevention programs focused on HIV counseling and testing, consistent condom use, decreased concurrent partnerships, and male circumcision. However, the Botswana legal system reinforces gender inequalities, further increasing women's risk for HIV infection. In Botswana's law, martial rape, domestic violence, and intimate partner violence are not criminalized. Further, sex with minors and sexual assault are not strictly enforced. Sex work is illegal and stigmatized, and thus sex workers are not receiving appropriate support in HIV prevention. This high-risk population accounts for only 1.65% of the general population but will account for 6.38% of new HIV infections. The HIV treatment and PMTCT programs have decreased HIV incidence, but Botswana may consider increasing its behavioral prevention programs to regard gender norms and reforming legislation to protect women and young girls. This paper recommends behavioral prevention programs through increased youth education programs, women empowerment programs, access to sexual and reproductive health care, and male involvement in sexual and reproductive health. Further, it is recommended that policy makers focus on reforming civil legislation and bolstering enforcement of existing laws that protect women from violence. The key to successful scale-up of behavioral prevention in Botswana will be community-driven HIV initiatives and strong leadership from community leaders and members of parliament, including women.