Thesis (MSc)--Stellenbosch University, 2012. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Bacterial and fungal pathogens have developed numerous defence mechanisms against antimicrobial chemical agents, and resistance to old and new produced drugs are on the rise. Discovery of natural products derived from plants with diverse chemical structures and novel mechanisms of action to treat these notorious pathogens is a priority. Biotechnology (discussed in Chapter 1) has much to offer as a pharmacological tool and in the general study of medicinal plants. The Genus Salvia (Lamiaceae) has gathered much interest as these plants manufacture a diverse range of secondary metabolites including flavonoids, tannins and terpenoids. Of particular interest are the terpenoids which are largely implicated in the efficacy of Salvia plants as traditional medicines contributing to their pharmacological actions (discussed in Chapter 2). Due to the importance of these plants as herbal remedies, in this study, biotechnological techniques such as tissue culture and Agrobacterium-mediated transformation were applied on Salvia runcinata L.f., a South African medicinal plant, in an attempt to enhance the metabolomic profile and its bioactivity. Like so many other sages, S. runcinata has been used in folk medicine to treat a variety of ailments. Application of biotechnology was viewed as an important value adding platform for this species, assisting with its commercialisation for the cosmeceutical and pharmaceutical industries. Therefore the study had three foci: (1) to determine the seed germination behaviour and optimal conditions for micropropagation; (2) to develop a protocol that would be efficient whilst being simple for genetic transformation; and lastly, (3) to conduct phytochemical studies on in vitro generated S. runcinata transgenic hairy root and in vitro organ cultures by comparing these to glasshouse plants as potential therapeutic sources of natural compounds used in the treatment of infections in plants and humans. Data generated is thus summarised in three research chapters and Chapter 3 describes the formulated procedures assisting with in vitro seed germination and micropropagation of S. runcinata. The efficacy of smoke and scarification treatments for germination improvement was initially tested coupled to the evaluation of different hormonal combinations and different explant types which would aid with inducing adventitious shoot formation in vitro. The most effective germination treatment proved to be a 3 min exposure of seeds to 25% (w/v) H2SO4 combined with a concentration of 10-5 M smoke solution, resulting to more than 80% germination. Shoot proliferation was significantly higher using nodal explants with the addition of 4.43 μM BA. The protocol established in this part of the study is viable for large scale commercial production of S. runcinata as it would yield 1296 to 46656 viable plants in 4 to 6 months from one nodal explant. Micropropagation was applied also as a pre-emptive measure to ease pressure on the wild plants as the demand for S. runcinata is anticipated to increase due to its growing economic value as it is one of two South African sages with epi-α-bisabolol that is sought after by the pharmaceutical and cosmeceutical industries. This makes the protocol developed in this part of the study suitable for ex situ conservation of S. runcinata plantlets. Evaluations on the transgene transfer capacities of two different agropine strains (A4T and LBA 9402) of Agrobacterium rhizogenes to induce hairy root cultures of S. runcinata explants on nodal and leaf explants were conducted (reported in Chapter 4). Hairy roots formed 3 to 4 weeks after inoculation of the explants and these agropine strains showed different abilities for genetic transformation with the LBA 9402 strain producing significantly more roots on each explant compared to the A4T strain (P=0.0075). However, none of the LBA 9402 derived clones and only 2 clones generated through A4T transformation survived subculturing. The polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) confirmed the presence and transcription (respectively) of rol A, rol B, rol C and ags genes which are mobilised from the transfer-DNA (T-DNA) fragment of the root-inducing (Ri) plasmid of A. rhizogenes to the plant genome during transformation. The two A4T clones, termed here A4T3 and A4T5, were stably transformed, Southern blot analysis using rol A as a probe further validated the integration of one copy of the rol A gene. Transformed hairy roots, untransformed roots from tissue cultured plants, tissue culture-derived plants and glasshouse-grown plants were profiled for secondary metabolites by thin layer chromatography (TLC) and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) in Chapter 5. In this part of the study, it is clear that the use of tissue culture as a propagation system did not negatively affect the volatile compound profile of S. runcinata and plants had a similar essential oil content to that reported by Kamatou et al. (2008), leading to a conclusion that in vitro plants maintained their biochemical integrity even under an alternative micro-controlled environment. Similarly to others, Ri-transformation was explored as an avenue to alter secondary metabolism creating inter-clonal variation. Transformed clones were distinguishable, displaying more of some primary metabolites including sucrose, galactose, sorbose and fructose than the leaf extracts. With the current GC-MS methods used, this clear distinction was not obvious at the secondary metabolite level. In general, solvent extracts (acetone and methanol:dichloromethane (MetOH: DCM) (1:1 v/v) exhibited good to moderate antibacterial activity with the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) values ranging from 0.39 to 0.78 mg ml-1. However, in vitro plant cultures were the most potent against two Gram-negative bacterial strains: Escherichia coli (ATCC 11775) and Klebsiella pneumoniae (ATCC 13883), and two Gram-positive bacterial strains: Bacillus subtilis (ATCC 6051) and Staphylococcus aureus (ATCC 12600). The hairy root extracts did not show any activity against fungi, Fusarium subglutinans (MRC 0115) and Fusarium proliferatum (MRC 6908). Micropropagation therefore proves to be an interesting avenue for commercial production of S. runcinata, supplying plants with an improved pharmacological activity. Hence the biotechnological approach applied here is a viable strategy for the production of medicinal bioactives from S. runcinata. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Bakterieë en fungi patogene het baie verskeie meganismes ontwikkel teen antimikrobiese chemiese agente, en weerstand teen ou en nuwe chemise stowwe is besig om te vergroot. Daarom is dit belangrik om natuurlike plantaardige produkte met diverse chemiese strukture en unieke werkings meganismes te ontdek waarmee hierdie berugte patogene beveg kan word. Biotegnologie (wat in Hoofstuk 1 bespreek word) kan gebruik word as 'n farmakologiese hulpmiddel in die algemene studie van plante. Die Klas (Genus) Salvia (Lamiaceae) het al baie aandag getrek aangesien hierdie plante 'n wye reeks sekondêre metaboliete vervaardig wat flavonoïede, tanniene en terpenoïede insluit. Veral van belang is die terpenoïde wat betrokke is by die doeltreffendheid van die Salvia plante as tradisionele medisyne, aangesien dit bydra tot hulle farmalogiese aksie (wat in Hoofstuk 2 bespreek word). Aangesien hierdie plante sulke belangrike kruie is, word daar in hierdie studie, biotegnologiese tegnieke soos die kweek van weefsel en Agrobacterium-bemiddelde transformasie op Salvia runcinata L.f. toegepas om die metabologiese profiel en die bioaktiwiteit daarvan te verbeter. Soos baie van die salies is S. runcinata tradisioneel dikwels gebruik om allerhande siektetoestande te behandel. Die toepassing van biotegnologie word beskou as 'n belangrike manier om waarde by te voeg sodat hierdie plant kommersieei deur die kosmetiese en farmakeutiese bedrywe gebruik kan word. Daarom is daar op drie dinge gefokus: (1) die ontkiemings gedrag van saad en die optimale toestande vir mikrovoortplanting (2) die ontwikkeling van protokol wat eenvoudig maar doeltreffend is vir genetiese transformasie, en die (3) fito-chemise studies op in vitro genereerde S. runcinata transgeniese harige wortels en in vitro orgaan kwekings deur om hulle te vergelyk met kweekhuis plante as potentiële terapeutiese bronne van natuurlike samestellings vir die behandeling van infeksies in beide plante en mense. Die data wat gegenereer is, is opgesom in drie hoofstukke, en in Hoofstuk 3 word die prosedures wat gebruik word in die in vitro saad ontkieming en die mikro voortplanting van S. runcinata, bespreek. Die doeltreffendheid van rook en skarifikasie behandeling vir die verbetering van ontkieming is eers getoets en gekoppel aan die evaluering van verskillende hormoonkombinasies en verskillende eksplant tipes wat lei tot die formasie van uitloopsels in vitro. Daar is gevind dat die effektiefste behandeling vir ontkieming, 'n 3-minuut blootstelling van saad aan 25% (w/v) H2SO4 gekombineer met 'n konsentrasie 10-5 M rook oplossing is. Dit het gelei tot meer as 80% ontkieming. Daar was baie meer uitloopsels toe nodale eksplante gebruik is met die byvoeging van 4.43 μM BA. Die proktokol wat hier gevestig is, kan op groot skaal gebruik word vir die kommersiële produksie van S. runcinata, want 1296 tot 46656 lewensvatbare plante kan binne 4 ot 6 maande van een nodale eksplant gemaak word. Mikro voortplanting is toegepas as 'n voorkomende maatreel om die druk op die natuur te verminder omdat daar verwag word dat die vraag na S. runcinata sal toeneem na gelang die groeiende ekonomiese waarde daarvan toeneem. Dit is een van twee Suid-Afrikaanse salies met epi-α-bisabolol wat deur die farmakeutiese en die kosmetiese bedrywe gebruik word. Dit beteken dat die protokol wat hier ontwikkel is, geskik is vir die ex situ bewaring van S. runcinata plante. Die transgeen oordrag van twee verskillende agropien tipes (A4T and LBA 9402) van Agrobacterium rhizogenes is geevalueer (en in Hoofstuk 4 beskryf). Harige wortels het 3 tot 4 weke na die inenting van die eksplante gevorm en hierdie agropien tipes het verskillende vermoëns vir genetiese transformasie getoon, met die LBA 9402 tipe wat baie meer wortels op elke eksplant voorgebring het in vergelyking met die A4T tipe (P=0.03116). Geen van die LBA 9402-afgeleide klone en slegs 2 klone wat deur A4T transformasie genereer is, het oorleef. The polimerase ketting reaksie (PCR) en die teenoorgestelde trenskriptasie-polimerase (RT-PCR) ketting reaksie het die teenwoordigheid en transkipsie (onderskeidelik) van rol A, rol B en rol C en ags gene, wat oorgedra word deur die oordrag DNA (T-DNA) fragment van die wortel induserende (Ri) plasmied van A. rhizogenes na die plant genoom tydens transformasie, bevorder. A4T klone, hier A4T3 and A4T5 genoem, is stabiel transformeer. Southern blot ontleding het met die gebruik van rol A, die integrasie van een kopie van die rol A geen, bevestig. In Hoofstuk 5 is transformeerde harige wortels, ongetransformeerde wortels van weefsel gekweekte plante, weefsel gekweekte plante, en kweekhuis plante deur dun-laag chromatografie (TLC) en gas-chromatografie-massa spektrometrie (GC-MS) geprofiel vir sekondêre metaboliete. In hierdie deel van die studie is dit duidelik dat die gebruik van weefsel kwekery as 'n voortplantsisteem nie 'n negatiewe effek gehad het op die vlugtige samestelling profiel van S. runcinata nie en dat plante 'n sootgelyke essentiële olie inhoud het as wat deur Kamatou et al. (2008) bevind is. Dit lei tot die gevolgtrekking dat in vitro plante hulle biochemiese integriteit behou selfs onder alternatiewe mikro-beheerde omgewings. Ri-transformasie is ondersoek as 'n manier om sekondêre metabolisme te verander om interkloon variasie te skep. Getransformeerde klone kon uitgeken word, aangesien dit meer primêre metaboliete soos sukrose, galaktose en fruktose insluit as die blaar ekstrakte. Hierdie verskil was nie met die huidige GC-MS metodes so duidelik sigbaar op die sekondêre metabolitiese vlak nie. Oor die algemeen toon ekstraksie met asetoon en methanol dichlorometaan (MetOH: DCM) (1:1 v/v) goeie tot gemiddelde antibakteriese aktiwiteit met die minimum remmende konsentrasie (MIC) waardes van 0.39 tot 0.78 mg ml-1. Die in vitro plant kulture het egter sterker weerstand gebied teen twee Gram-negatiewe bakteriese tipes: Escherichia coli (ATCC 11775) en Klebsiella pneumoniae (ATCC 13883), en teen twee Gram-positiewe bakteriese tipes: Bacillus subtilis (ATCC 6051) en Staphylococcus aureus (ATCC 12600). Die harige wortel ekstrakte het geen aktiwiteit teen die swamme, Fusarium subglutinans (MRC 0115) en Fusarium proliferatum (MRC 6908) getoon nie. Mikro-voortplanting is dus 'n interessante manier om S. runcinata kommersieel te produseer aangeien die plante verbeterde farmalogiese aktiwiteit toon. Die biotegnologiese benadering wat hier toegepas word, is 'n praktiese strategie vir die produksie van geneesmiddels van S. runcinata.

Os hormônios auxina e citocininas são essenciais ao desenvolvimento das plantas, pois controlam os processos de divisão, expansão e diferenciação celular, os quais, por sua vez, influenciam desde a formação do embrião até o amadurecimento dos frutos e senescência. Auxinas e citocininas regulam respostas fisiológicas comuns, sugerindo haver múltiplos mecanismos de interação. Neste trabalho, um modelo para estudar a interação entre auxinas e citocininas no controle do desenvolvimento é proposto, sendo baseado em plantas mutantes e transgênicas, além de duplos mutantes, com alterações na sensibilidade ou metabolismo de auxina e citocinina. O mutante bushy root (brt) foi caracterizado como pouco sensível à citocinina e sugere uma importante função da citocinina no desenvolvimento da semente e na determinação da dominância apical em tomateiro. Os mutantes potato leaf (c) e entire (e) foram introgredidos no background Micro-Tom (MT), caracterizados e utilizados para verificar como eles afetam a sensibilidade à auxina e como interferem no desenvolvimento da planta. Esses mutantes foram comparados com MT, com o mutante diageotropica (dgt), que é pouco sensível à auxina, e com os duplos mutantes c dgt e dgt e. A mutação c não alterou a sensibilidade à auxina e estaria influenciando apenas a arquitetura foliar. O mutante e parece ser mais sensível à auxina com relação à capacidade de formar raízes in vitro e partenocarpia. O duplo mutante dgt e mostrou fenótipo aditivo (intermediário), sugerindo que DGT e E agem em vias paralelas na resposta à auxina. Foram criadas linhagens transgênicas com superexpressão da enzima citocinina oxidase de Arabidopsis (35S:AtCKX2), que resulta em plantas com baixos níveis endógenos de citocinina. As linhagens transgênicas (MT CKX2 e dgt CKX2) foram comparadas com MT, brt, dgt e brt dgt. A maioria dos parâmetros que estavam relacionados com o desenvolvimento vegetativo, e todos os parâmetros relacionados ao desenvolvimento reprodutivo, foram associados ao efeito dos níveis absolutos de auxina e citocinina, sendo provavelmente resultantes de alterações nos processos de divisão e expansão celular. A dominância apical e a morfogênese in vitro (formação de gemas caulinares e raízes) foram associadas ao efeito do balanço auxina/citocinina, sendo esses processos conhecidamente regulados pelo efeito dessas classes hormonais na diferenciação celular / The plant hormones auxin and cytokinin are crucial for plant development, since they control cell division, expansion and differentiation, which regulate developmental processes starting from embryo formation to fruit ripening and senescence. Auxins and cytokinins usually regulate the same physiological responses, suggesting multiple mechanisms of interaction between these hormones. In this work, a model to study auxin and cytokinin interaction in the control of plant development is proposed, based on mutants, transgenic lines and double mutants with alterations on the auxin and cytokinin sensitivity or metabolism. The bushy root (brt) mutant was characterized as having low cytokinin sensitivity and suggested a relevant function to cytokinin in the seed development and apical dominance in tomato. The potato leaf (c) and entire (e) mutants were introgressed in the Micro-Tom background, characterized and used to check how they affect the auxin sensitivity and the plant development. The responses from these mutants were compared to MT and diageotropica (dgt), which is a low sensitive auxin mutant, and also compared to c dgt and dgt e double mutants. The c mutation did not alter the auxin sensitivity and was only related to leaf architecture. The e mutant seemed to be more sensitive to auxin in the in vitro root induction and parthenocarpy. The double mutant dgt e showed an additive phenotype, suggesting that DGT and E act in parallel pathways controlling auxin sensitivity. Transgenic lines were generated overexpressing the cytokinin oxidase from Arabidopsis (35S:AtCKX2), which renders plants with low endogenous cytokinin levels. Transgenic lines (MT CKX2 and dgt CKX2) were compared to MT, brt, dgt and brt dgt. Most of the traits related to vegetative development and all traits related to reproductive development were linked to the effect of auxin and cytokinin absolute levels, probably reflecting to the effect of these hormones in cell division and expansion. Apical dominance and in vitro morphogenesis (shoot and root formation) were linked to the auxin-to-cytokinin ratio, since these processes are well known to be regulated by the effect of these two hormones in cell differentiation

RIBEIRO, Sandra Mara Serafim. Transformação genética de plantas de fumo (Nicotiana tabacum var. Xanthi) com a seqüência CV1887 de Chromobacterium violaceum. 2009. 90 f. Dissertação (Mestrado em Bioquímica) - Universidade Federal do Ceará, Fortaleza-CE, 2009. / Submitted by Eric Santiago (erichhcl@gmail.com) on 2016-07-11T12:29:18Z No. of bitstreams: 1 2009_dis_smsribeiro.pdf: 1692746 bytes, checksum: 683e626eb9d261fd4a3e1f97ecdd84fe (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by José Jairo Viana de Sousa (jairo@ufc.br) on 2016-08-02T20:19:46Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 1 2009_dis_smsribeiro.pdf: 1692746 bytes, checksum: 683e626eb9d261fd4a3e1f97ecdd84fe (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2016-08-02T20:19:46Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 2009_dis_smsribeiro.pdf: 1692746 bytes, checksum: 683e626eb9d261fd4a3e1f97ecdd84fe (MD5) Previous issue date: 2009 / The genetic transformation of plants represents today an important tool to investigate the function of genes of diverse origins like plants, fungi, virus, nematodes and bacteria. Those that come from bacteria are the most representative ones. Within this context, sequences coding to domains containing YD (tyrosine - asparatate) repetitions, that have similarities with nematicide proteins, were detected in the Chromobacterium violaceum strain ATCC 12472 genome. Among these sequences, the ORF CV1887 (4.155 bp) was selected for cloning and expression in the heterologous system, in the attempt to validate its activity determined in silico in the C. violaceum genome's annotation. The experimental strategy consisted in cloning the complete (4.155 bp) and the partial sequence (2.642 bp) of the ORF in the binary vector pBI121. The recombinant vectors w ere introduced in Agrobacterium tumefaciens strain LBA4404 cells by electroporation. By utilizing agroinfection system, leaves segments of Nicotiana tabacum var. Xanthi were transformed and used as propagles for regeneration of the firsts transformants. Th e confirmation of the genetic transformation was achieved by PCR with the genomic DNA extracted from of the selected clones, followed of a PCR reaction. The visualization of bands in the agarose gel electrophoresis showed that from the 19 clones with the p artial sequence cv1887 that were selected, 84% showed bands with approximate size of 2.642 bp, and from the 13 clones with the complete sequence CV1887 that were selected, 78% showed bands with approximate size of 4.155 bp. For the expression analysis, the following were selected: three transformed clones with partial sequence CV1887, two transformed clones with complete sequence CV1887, three clones transformed with the reporter gene gus, which encodes for the enzyme b - glucoronidase, and two control clone s of non - transformed plants. The RNA from the selected clones was used in a RT - PCR reaction for cDNA synthesis and amplification of the corresponding sequences. The products of the amplification were analyzed in an agarose gel electrophoresis, showing the presence of bands with 2.642 bp for the three clones transformed with partial sequence CV1887 and 1.812 bp for the three clones transformed with gus and it is confirmed the presence of these sequences in the transformed cells. It was not confirmed the pres ence in transformed clones, the complete sequence CV1887. / A transformação genética de plantas atualmente representa uma importante ferramenta para investigação da função de genes de diversas origens como plantas, fungos, vírus, nematóides e bactérias, sendo os de origem bacteriana os mais representativos. Dentro desse contexto, seqüências codificando para domínios contendo repetições YD (tirosina- ácido aspártico), que possuem similaridades com proteínas nematicidas, foram previamente detectadas no genoma de Chromobacterium violaceum estirpe ATCC 12472. Dentre essas seqüências, a ORF CV1887 (4.155 pb) foi selecionada para clonagem e expressão no sistema heterólogo, objetivando validar a atividade determinada in silico na anotação do genoma de C. violaceum. A estratégia experimental consistiu em clonar as seqüências completa (4.155 pb) e parcial (2.642 pb) da ORF CV1887 no vetor binário pBI121. Os vetores recombinantes foram introduzidos em células de Agrobacterium tumefaciens estirpe LBA4404, por eletroporação. Empregando-se o sistema de agroinfecção, segmentos foliares de Nicotiana tabacum var. Xanthi foram transformados e usados como propágulos para regeneração dos transformantes primários. A confirmação da transformação genética foi feita por reação da polimerase em cadeia (PCR), sendo usado como molde, o DNA genômico extraído de clones selecionados em meio de cultura contendo canamicina. Pela visualização das bandas no gel de agarose, dos 19 clones selecionados de CV1887 parcial, 84% apresentaram bandas no tamanho aproximado de 2.642 pb e dos 13 clones selecionados de CV1887 completo, 78% apresentaram bandas no tamanho aproximado de 4.155 pb. Para a análise da expressão, foram selecionados três clones transformados com a seqüência CV1887 parcial, dois clones transformados com a seqüência CV1887 completa, três clones transformados com o gene repórter gus, que codifica para a enzima β-glucoronidase, e dois clones de plantas controle não transformadas. O RNA extraído dos clones selecionados foi utilizado em uma reação de RT-PCR para a síntese do cDNA e amplificação das seqüências correspondentes. Os produtos da amplificação foram analisados por meio de eletroforese em gel de agarose, constatando-se a presença de bandas no tamanho aproximado de 2.642 pb para os três clones transformados com a seqüência CV1887 parcial e no tamanho de 1.812 pb para os três clones transformados com gus, confirmando-se a presença dessas seqüências nas células transformadas. Não foi confirmada a presença, nos clones transformados, da seqüência CV1887 completa.

Orientadores: Marcos Antonio Machado, Raquel Luciana Boscariol-Camargo / Dissertação (mestrado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Instituto de Biologia / Made available in DSpace on 2018-08-12T20:37:59Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Simoes_ThiagoSena_M.pdf: 6491430 bytes, checksum: 1dd8f0cde7283c457f3dfd61e7ff367d (MD5) Previous issue date: 2008 / Resumo: Huanglongbing (HLB), também conhecido como greening é uma das mais importantes doenças dos citros no mundo e é causada pela bactéria Candidatus Liberibacter spp. Esta doença é originária da China e da África, onde estão presentes as variantes Ca. L. asiaticus e Ca. L. africanus, respectivamente. Em 2004, a doença foi encontrada no Brasil onde foi identificada a forma asiática e também uma nova variante denominada Ca. L. americanus. A bactéria Ca.Liberibacter vive e se desenvolve no floema da planta hospedeira, causando amarelecimento do ramo infectado, deformação e queda do fruto. Até o momento não foi possível o cultivo em meio de cultura de Ca. Liberibacter e muito pouco é conhecido sobre sua biologia. Outra doença importante para a cultura, o cancro cítrico, também é originária do continente asiático, e causa grandes perdas de produção devido à desfolha da planta e a queda precoce de frutos. Seu agente causal, a bactériaXanthomonas axonopodis pv. citri provoca lesões necróticas em folhas, ramos e frutos. Não existem variedades resistentes ao HLB ou ao cancro cítrico, o que torna necessários estudos buscando fontes alternativas de resistência às doenças. Uma das possibilidades para se obter resistência é o uso de plantas geneticamente modificadas com genes que expressam peptídeos antimicrobianos ou que atuem no mecanismo de ativação da resposta das plantas às doenças. Os genes atacinaA e Xa21 já foram empregados em construções genéticas para variedades de laranjas doces, sendo que ambos apresentaram resistência a patógenos bacterianos em outras culturas, e diminuição no número de lesões causadas pelo patógeno X axonopodis em: I plantas transgênicas de laranja doce. Outro gene interessante, o Nprl, é um regulador que atua 0(1, indução de respostas de defesa da planta contra patógenos. Em outras culturas, a superexpressão de Npr 1 culturas promoveu aumento da resistência a fungos e bactérias. O presente trabalho teve como objetivo avaliar a resposta de plantas de laranjas geneticamente modificadas com estes três genes, quando infectadas com Ca. Liberibacter, e a resposta das plantas contendo o gene AtNpr 1 quando inoculadas com X axonopodis. O monitoramento da resposta à inoculação com Ca. Liberibacter foi realizado através da avaliação da presença de sintomas de HLB, e pela quantificação da bactéria nos tecidos do floema por meio de qPCR, utilizando-se a região ribossomal 16S bacteriana, previamente caracterizada. Já as plantas inoculadas com a bactéria causadora do cancro cítrico foram analisadas através da expressão de PR-proteínas, da quantificação do desenvolvimento da população bacteriana por meio de curva de crescimento, e pela análise visual de sintomas. A bactéria Ca. Liberibacter foi capaz de se multiplicar em todos os eventos de transformação analisados, porém quatro deles (transformados com o gene AtNprl) não manifestaram sintoma da doença. Duas plantas desta construção também apresentaram redução no número e tamanho das lesões causadas por X axonopodis, indicando uma possível tolerância desta planta à bactéria. / Abstract: Huanglongbing (HLB), also known as greening, is the world most important citrus disease and it is caused by the bacterium Candidatus Liberibacter spp. This disease was originated from China and Africa, where were discovered the variants Ca. L. asiaticus and Ca. L. africanus, respectively. In 2004, the disease was detected in Brazil, where the variants asiaticus and a new one called americanus were identified. The Ca. Liberibacter bacteria inhabit phloem vessels of host plants, causing yellowing of infected branches, and fruits abscission. At the moment, it was not possible to cultivate Ca. Liberibacter, and very little is known about its biology. Another important disease of citrus, the citrus canker, is also originated from Asian continent and causes huge damages to citrus production because of leaf drop and prematurely falI of fruits. Its causal agent, the bacterium Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. citri, causes necrotic lesions in leaves, branches and fruits. There is no varietal resistance to HLB ar citrus canker, and it is necessary to develop studies in order to achieve altemative resistance sources to these diseases. One possibility to obtain resistance is the use of genetically modified plants expressing antimicrobial peptides genes, or expressing genes that act in theplant defense response machinery. The genes attacinA and Xa21 were used in genetic constructions for sweet orange varieties, and both showed resistarice to bacterial pathogens in other crops, with small number of lesions caused by X axonopodis in transgenic sweet orange plants. Another interesting gene, the Nprl, is a regulator that acts in the induction of plant defense response against pathogens. 1n other crops, the Npr 1 super-expression caused high leveI of resistance to bacterial and fungal pathogens. The goal ofthe present study was to evaluate the response of genetically modified sweet orange plants with these three genes, after infection of Ca. Liberibacter, and the response of plants containing the AtNprl gene, after X axonopodis inoculation. The response to Ca. Liberibacter infection was analyzed by the evaluation of HLB symptoms and by the quantification of phloem-associated bacteria by qPCR based on a previously characterized Ca. Liberibacter 168 ribosomal region. PIants inoculated with the causal agent of citrus canker were analyzed by RT-PCR to detect the expression of PR-proteins. The quantification of bacterial population was deveIoped using a growth curve and by visual analysis of symptoms. The bacterium Ca. Liberibacter grown in alI the transformation events analyzed, however four of them (transformed with the AtNprl gene) did not develop disease symptoms. Also, two. plants of this construction showed reduction in the number and size of lesions caused by X axonopodis, indicating a possible induction of plant tolerance to citrus canker. / Mestrado / Genetica Vegetal e Melhoramento / Mestre em Genética e Biologia Molecular

Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento CientÃfico e TecnolÃgico / FundaÃÃo de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado do Cearà / A transformaÃÃo genÃtica de plantas atualmente representa uma importante ferramenta para investigaÃÃo da funÃÃo de genes de diversas origens como plantas, fungos, vÃrus, nematÃides e bactÃrias, sendo os de origem bacteriana os mais representativos. Dentro desse contexto, seqÃÃncias codificando para domÃnios contendo repetiÃÃes YD (tirosina- Ãcido aspÃrtico), que possuem similaridades com proteÃnas nematicidas, foram previamente detectadas no genoma de Chromobacterium violaceum estirpe ATCC 12472. Dentre essas seqÃÃncias, a ORF CV1887 (4.155 pb) foi selecionada para clonagem e expressÃo no sistema heterÃlogo, objetivando validar a atividade determinada in silico na anotaÃÃo do genoma de C. violaceum. A estratÃgia experimental consistiu em clonar as seqÃÃncias completa (4.155 pb) e parcial (2.642 pb) da ORF CV1887 no vetor binÃrio pBI121. Os vetores recombinantes foram introduzidos em cÃlulas de Agrobacterium tumefaciens estirpe LBA4404, por eletroporaÃÃo. Empregando-se o sistema de agroinfecÃÃo, segmentos foliares de Nicotiana tabacum var. Xanthi foram transformados e usados como propÃgulos para regeneraÃÃo dos transformantes primÃrios. A confirmaÃÃo da transformaÃÃo genÃtica foi feita por reaÃÃo da polimerase em cadeia (PCR), sendo usado como molde, o DNA genÃmico extraÃdo de clones selecionados em meio de cultura contendo canamicina. Pela visualizaÃÃo das bandas no gel de agarose, dos 19 clones selecionados de CV1887 parcial, 84% apresentaram bandas no tamanho aproximado de 2.642 pb e dos 13 clones selecionados de CV1887 completo, 78% apresentaram bandas no tamanho aproximado de 4.155 pb. Para a anÃlise da expressÃo, foram selecionados trÃs clones transformados com a seqÃÃncia CV1887 parcial, dois clones transformados com a seqÃÃncia CV1887 completa, trÃs clones transformados com o gene repÃrter gus, que codifica para a enzima β-glucoronidase, e dois clones de plantas controle nÃo transformadas. O RNA extraÃdo dos clones selecionados foi utilizado em uma reaÃÃo de RT-PCR para a sÃntese do cDNA e amplificaÃÃo das seqÃÃncias correspondentes. Os produtos da amplificaÃÃo foram analisados por meio de eletroforese em gel de agarose, constatando-se a presenÃa de bandas no tamanho aproximado de 2.642 pb para os trÃs clones transformados com a seqÃÃncia CV1887 parcial e no tamanho de 1.812 pb para os trÃs clones transformados com gus, confirmando-se a presenÃa dessas seqÃÃncias nas cÃlulas transformadas. NÃo foi confirmada a presenÃa, nos clones transformados, da seqÃÃncia CV1887 completa. / The genetic transformation of plants represents today an important tool to investigate the function of genes of diverse origins like plants, fungi, virus, nematodes and bacteria. Those that come from bacteria are the most representative ones. Within this context, sequences coding to domains containing YD (tyrosine - asparatate) repetitions, that have similarities with nematicide proteins, were detected in the Chromobacterium violaceum strain ATCC 12472 genome. Among these sequences, the ORF CV1887 (4.155 bp) was selected for cloning and expression in the heterologous system, in the attempt to validate its activity determined in silico in the C. violaceum genome's annotation. The experimental strategy consisted in cloning the complete (4.155 bp) and the partial sequence (2.642 bp) of the ORF in the binary vector pBI121. The recombinant vectors w ere introduced in Agrobacterium tumefaciens strain LBA4404 cells by electroporation. By utilizing agroinfection system, leaves segments of Nicotiana tabacum var. Xanthi were transformed and used as propagles for regeneration of the firsts transformants. Th e confirmation of the genetic transformation was achieved by PCR with the genomic DNA extracted from of the selected clones, followed of a PCR reaction. The visualization of bands in the agarose gel electrophoresis showed that from the 19 clones with the p artial sequence cv1887 that were selected, 84% showed bands with approximate size of 2.642 bp, and from the 13 clones with the complete sequence CV1887 that were selected, 78% showed bands with approximate size of 4.155 bp. For the expression analysis, the following were selected: three transformed clones with partial sequence CV1887, two transformed clones with complete sequence CV1887, three clones transformed with the reporter gene gus, which encodes for the enzyme b - glucoronidase, and two control clone s of non - transformed plants. The RNA from the selected clones was used in a RT - PCR reaction for cDNA synthesis and amplification of the corresponding sequences. The products of the amplification were analyzed in an agarose gel electrophoresis, showing the presence of bands with 2.642 bp for the three clones transformed with partial sequence CV1887 and 1.812 bp for the three clones transformed with gus and it is confirmed the presence of these sequences in the transformed cells. It was not confirmed the pres ence in transformed clones, the complete sequence CV1887.

A cultura do cacaueiro (Theobroma cacao L.) na região sul da Bahia foi dizimada com a introdução do fungo Moniliophthora perniciosa. Novas fontes de resistência têm sido buscadas e alternativas são necessárias para assegurar a produção de cultivares considerando a variabilidade genética do patógeno. A descoberta de genes de resistência e de defesa presumíveis a partir de abordagens genômicas impõe a necessidade de estabelecimento de uma plataforma de análise funcional para comprovar a função dos genes identificados e/ou esclarecimento dos mecanismos envolvidos; isto requer o desenvolvimento de métodos de manipulação e/ou inserção de genes, permitindo a superexpressão ou silenciamento de genes de interesse. Os primeiros cacaueiros transgênicos só foram desenvolvidos a poucos anos, e a eficiência do processo ainda é limitada. Há grande influência genotípica na capacidade embriogênica, que reduz a eficiência de obtenção de transgênicos. Micro-Tom tem sido considerado um modelo para pesquisas em tomateiro, sendo uma cultivar miniatura, ciclo de vida curto, porte reduzido e de fácil transformação. MT pode ser usada no estudo da interação com o fungo M. perniciosa, visto a disponibilidade de isolados do biótipo-S que infectam o tomateiro, assim disponibilizando informações dos mecanismos de defesa do T. cacao a M. perniciosa em um menor tempo, suprindo alguns obstáculos encontrados nas características biológicas do cacaueiro. Considerando que durante a patogênese do cacaueiro, M. perniciosa é capaz de desencadear a morte celular programada no tecido infectado, foi analisada a hipótese de que a expressão de genes anti-apoptóticos diminuiria ou minimizaria os efeitos da infecção, permitindo uma menor susceptibilidade. Para tal, foi clonado o gene da proteína Bax-inhibitor-1, que atua como atenuador basal para a progressão da morte celular, e desenvolvida uma construção. Esse gene havia sido detectado numa biblioteca da interação M. perniciosa x T. cacao e identificado com sequência completa, e foi re-introduzido em tomateiro e cacaueiro sob controle de promotor constitutivo. Para o modelo genético MT, plantas transgênicas contendo Bax-inhibitor-1, SKP1 e Cafeína sintase foram obtidas. Plantas transgênicas de tomateiro contendo o gene Bax-inhibitor-1 foram inoculadas com M. perniciosa e demonstraram redução no número de plantas sintomáticas (40%), quando comparadas as plantas de MT inoculadas com o mesmo patógeno (83%). Esses dados corroboram com resultados das inoculações com os fungos necrotróficos B. cinerea, S. sclerotium e S. rolfsii, sendo que as plantas transgênicas inoculadas também apresentaram contenção dos sintomas dessas doenças, uma redução de 40% da área de infecção em comparação as plantas de MT infectadas. Desse modo, pode-se concluir que o gene Bax-inhibitor-1 em MT agiu de forma basal na atenuação da progressão da morte celular, reduzindo os sintomas da vassoura-de-bruxa, da mesma forma que esse transgene contribuiu na redução dos sintomas do mofo cinza, mofo branco e murcha-de-esclerócio, por conter o crescimento e desenvolvimento dos fungos inoculados em tomateiro. Foi possível otimizar o protocolo de embriogênese somática e de transformação genética de cacaueiro, o que levou a obtenção de plantas transgênicas contendo a construção Bax-inhibitor-1, confirmadas por RTqPCR. Indicando que a abordagem de transformação de cacaueiro está implementada no laboratório, porém a baixa eficiência do processo e o tempo necessário ainda impedem seu uso em larga escala para análise funcional / The cultivation of cocoa (Theobroma cacao L.) in south Bahia was decimated by the introduction of the fungus Moniliophthora perniciosa. New sources of resistance have been sought and alternatives are needed to ensure the production of cultivars considering the genetic variability of the pathogen. The discovery of genes for resistance and defense presumed from genomic approaches makes it necessary the establishment of a platform to verify the function of identified genes and/or the elucidation of the mechanisms involved; this requires the development of methods for manipulating and/or insertion of genes, allowing overexpressing or silencing of genes of interest. The first transgenic cocoa were only developed a few years ago, and the efficiency of the process is still limited. There is an expressive influence of the embryogenic capacity, which reduces the efficiency of obtaining transgenic plants. The cultivar Micro-Tom (MT) is considered a model for research on tomato, since it has a miniature size, short life cycle, and facile genetic transformation. MT can be used to study the interaction with the fungus M. perniciosa, since isolates of biotype-S are able to infect tomato, thus provinding inferences about defense mechanisms of T. cacao to M. perniciosa in a short time, providing some obstacles encountered in biological characteristics of cocoa. Since during the pathogenesis of cocoa, M. perniciosa is able to trigger programmed cell death in infected tissue, it was analyzed the hypothesis that the expression of anti-apoptotic genes diminish or minimize the effects of infection, allowing less susceptibility. To this end, was cloned the protein Bax-inhibitor-1, which acts as a basal attenuator for the progression of cell death, was cloned engineered in a vector for genetic transformation. This gene was detected in a library of interaction M. perniciosa x T. cacao and identified with the complete sequence, and was re-introduced into tomato and cocoa under the control of a constitutive promoter. For the genetic model MT, transgenic plants containing Bax-inhibitor-1, SKP1 and Caffeine synthase were obtained. Transgenic tomato plants containing the gene Bax-inhibitor-1 were inoculated with M. perniciosa and demonstrated a reduction in the number of symptomatic plants (40%) compared MT plants inoculated with the same pathogen (83%). These data corroborate results of inoculations with the necrotroph fungi B. cinerea, S. sclerotium e S. rolfsii. Thus, when transgenic plants were inoculated, it was observed a reduction of 40% in the area of infection, compared to infected MT plants. Taken together, the results indicate that the gene Bax-inhibitor-1 acted in the basal attenuation of progression of cell death in MT, reducing the symptoms of the witches\' broom disease, as well as the symptoms of gray mold, white mold and wilt esclerotia. Moreover it was possible to optimize the protocol for somatic embryogenesis and genetic transformation of cocoa, which led to the production of transgenic plants containing the construct Baxinhibitor- 1, confirmed by RT-qPCR. Although, a protocol for cocoa transformation was implemented in the laboratory, its the low efficiency and the time required still prevent its widespread use for functional analysis

O Brasil é o maior produtor de laranja doce no mundo. Entretanto, a cultura enfrenta grandes problemas, devido ao ataque de pragas e doenças, o que reduz a produtividade da cultura. Entre estas doenças, destaca-se o huanglongbing (HLB), doença associada a três espécies da bactéria Candidatus Liberibacter. No Brasil, o psilídeo Diaphorina citri é o inseto transmissor do HLB. A falta de cultivares de laranja doce resistentes ao HLB torna a transformação genética de plantas uma medida em potencial para o controle desta doença. Plantas transgênicas de laranja doce expressando um RNA de dupla fita (dsRNA) de um gene essencial à sobrevivência de D. citri podem resultar no controle do inseto por meio do mecanismo de RNA de interferência. Tal mecanismo resulta na degradação do RNAm homólogo ao dsRNA. Este trabalho teve por objetivo produzir plantas transgênicas de laranja doce, expressando um fragmento do gene DcV-ATPase-A de D. citri, em uma construção gênica tipo hairpin. Dessa forma, o silenciamento gênico por RNA de interferência seria ativado no psilídeo quando este for submetido à alimentação nas plantas transgênicas. O trabalho foi iniciado com a elaboração da construção gênica contendo uma sequência repetida e invertida do gene DcV-ATPase-A de D. citri, para formação de um hairpin. Segmentos de epicótilo, provenientes de sementes germinadas in vitro das laranjas \'Hamlin\', \'Pêra\' e \'Valência\' (Citrus sinensis L. Osbeck) foram utilizados como fontes de explantes para a transformação genética via Agrobacterium tumefaciens. Paralelamente aos experimentos de transformação genética, insetos adultos de D. citri foram submetidos a experimentos de alimentação artificial, contendo RNA de dupla fita (dsRNA) ou pequenos RNA interferentes (siRNA) da DcV-ATPase-A. Ao final do período de alimentação, foram avaliadas o número de insetos vivos e a expressão relativa do RNAm da DcV-ATPase-A. Através de PCR e Southern blot, a transgenia foi confirmada em 26 e 39 plantas de laranja \'Hamlin\' e \'Valência\', respectivamente. A transgenia não foi confirmada nas plantas regeneradas de laranja \'Pêra\'. O número de inserções no transgene variou de 1 a 4 cópias. A produção dos siRNAs foi confirmada em 10 plantas de laranja \'Valência\', através de siRNA blot. O uso de dietas artificiais contendo dsRNA ou siRNA do gene DcV-ATPase-A não resultou em diferenças significativas no número de insetos vivos, ou no nível de expressão relativa do RNAm do gene DcV-ATPase-A em insetos adultos de D. citri. / Brazil is the largest sweet orange producer in the world. However, this crop faces major problems due to the attack of pests and diseases that reduce its productivity. Among the diseases, stands out the huanglongbing (HLB), disease associated with three different species of the Candidatus Liberibacter bacteria. In Brazil, the psyllid Diaphorina citri is the insect vector of HLB. The absence of resistant sweet orange cultivars to HLB makes the genetic transformation of plants a potential methodology to control this disease. Sweet orange transgenic plants engineered to express double strand RNA (dsRNA) of an essential gene for D. citri survival could result in insect control by RNA interference. This mechanism results in degradation of homologous RNAm to dsRNA. The aim of this work was to produce transgenic sweet orange plants expressing a fragment of D. citri DcV-ATPase-A gene, in a hairpin construction aiming gene silencing by RNA interference in D. citri, when fed on sweet orange transgenic plants. The work started developing a gene construct containing an inverted and repeated sequence of DcV-ATPase-A gene, to form a hairpin. Epicotyl segments collected from in vitro germinated seedlings of \'Hamlin\', \'Pêra\' and \'Valência\' sweet oranges (Citrus sinensis L. Osbeck) were used as explants for the genetic transformation experiments via Agrobacterium tumefaciens. At the same time, adults of D. citri underwent artificial diet experiments containing dsRNA or siRNA of DcV-ATPase-A. At the end of feeding time, the survival of insects and the relative expression of DcV-ATPase-A RNAm were evaluated. Through PCR and Southern blot analysis, 26 \'Hamlin\' and 39 \'Valência\' sweet orange transgenic lines were confirmed. None of the regenerated \'Pêra\' plants were transgenic. The transgenic plants had 1 to 4 T-DNA insertions. The siRNA products were observed in 10 \'Valência\' plants, through siRNA blot. The artificial diets containing dsRNA or siRNA of DcV-ATPase-A resulted in no differences in the number of live insects and in the relative expression of DcV-ATPase-A RNAm in adult insects.

A transformação genética vem sendo, cada vez mais, incorporada em programas de melhoramento genético de diversas espécies. Esta técnica permite a incorporação de gene(s) exógeno(s) no genoma das plantas, modificando características específicas. Assim, apresenta-se como uma importante ferramenta de auxílio ao melhoramento convencional de citros, que possui uma série de limitações impostas pela sua biologia reprodutiva. Entretanto, a transformação genética requer o estabelecimento prévio de sistemas de regeneração de plantas in vitro como requisito essencial para sua execução. Portanto, o objetivo deste trabalho foi estabelecer as condições de cultivo in vitro para organogênese e transformação genética de laranja 'Hamlin', laranja 'Pera', laranja 'Valência', laranja 'Natal' (Citrus sinenis L. Osbeck) e limão 'Cravo' (Citrus limonia L. Osbeck), realizando-se a caracterização anatômica do processo. Buscou-se, inicialmente, otimizar o processo de organogênese e regeneração de plantas in vitro, a partir de segmentos de epicótilo. Explantes foram introduzidos em meio de cultura MT suplementado com BAP, nas concentrações 0,0; 0,5; 1,0; 1,5; 2,0; 2,5; 3,0; 3,5; 4,0 ou 4,5 mg.L -1 . Avaliaram-se o percentual de explantes responsivos e o número de brotações maiores ou iguais a 1,0 cm por explante responsivo. As brotações obtidas foram transferidas para meios de enraizamento, que se constituíram do MT + 1,0 mg.L -1 de NAA, MT + 1,0 mg.L -1 de IBA e MT na ausência de auxina. A concentração de BAP que melhor favoreceu a indução da organogênese foi 1,0 mg.L -1 para as laranjas doces e 0,5-2,5 mg.L -1 para o limão 'Cravo'. O meio de enraizamento com melhor resposta foi o MT + 1,0 mg.L -1 de IBA, para todos os cultivares estudados. Procedeu-se análise anatômica da organogênese in vitro, nas condições ótimas obtidas no trabalho anterior. As gemas adventícias tiveram origem endógena, formando-se a partir de zonas meristemáticas do câmbio vascular, caracterizando-se em organogênese direta. Desenvolveram-se, também, experimentos para estudar a transformação genética, via Agrobacterium, em segmentos de epicótilo de laranja 'Natal', laranja 'Valência' e limão 'Cravo'. Neste caso, estudou-se o tempo de inoculação com Agrobacterium, o período de co-cultivo, a utilização de acetoseringona e a temperatura de incubação durante o co-cultivo e o seccionamento do explante. Plantas transgênicas foram obtidas utilizando-se um período de inoculação de 20 minutos com Agrobacterium tumefaciens (EHA-105), co-cultivo por 3 dias na ausência de acetoseringona no meio de cultura e temperatura de co-cultivo de 23-27 °C. Finalmente, desenvolveu-se um estudo da indução da organogênese, análise histológica e transformação genética, a partir de segmentos internodais de plantas adultas das laranjas 'Hamlin', 'Pera', 'Valência' e 'Natal'. A organogênese foi induzida em meio de cultura DBA3, modificado, suplementado com 1,0 mg.L -1 de BAP e 0,5 mg.L -1 de NAA. Em função dos cortes histológicos concluiu-se que as gemas adventícias formaram-se na superfície do calo, o qual originou-se de sucessivas divisões celulares do câmbio, caracterizando-se em organogênese indireta. Plantas transgênicas de tecido adulto de laranja 'Hamlin' e laranja 'Valência' foram obtidas utilizando-se um dia de co-cultivo a 24 ºC, com ou sem o seccionamento do explante para Hamlin e apenas com o seccionamento do explante para Valência. / Genetic transformation has been more frequently associated with conventional genetic breeding programs of different species. It allows for the introduction of exogenous gene(s) into the plant genome, with the possibility of altering specific characteristics. Thus, it can be an important tool for Citrus conventional breeding programs, which present several limitations imposed by the characteristics of the reproductive biology of this genus. For the success of the transformation system, however, the previous establishment of an efficient in vitro regeneration system is required. The objective of this research was to define in vitro culture conditions for the organogenesis and genetic transformation of Hamlin, Pera, Valencia and Natal sweet oranges (Citrus sinensis L. Osbeck) and Rangpur lime (Citrus limonia L. Osbeck) with the anatomical characterization of the process. Initially, the optimization of the in vitro organogenesis process and plant recovery was attempted using epicotyl segments as explants. For organogenesis induction, the explants were placed in MT culture medium supplemented with BAP (0.0; 0.5; 1.0; 1.5; 2.0; 2.5; 3.0; 3.5; 4.0 or 4.5 mg.L -1 ). The percent of responsive explants and the number of adventitious shoots per explant (> 1.0 cm) were evaluated. The shoots were transferred to rooting media, consisting of MT medium supplemented with NAA or IBA, or absence of auxin. The best BAP concentration for organogenesis induction was 1.0 mg.L -1 for the sweet oranges and between 0.5 and 2.5 mg.L -1 for Rangpur lime. The best rooting medium was MT with 1.0 mg.L -1 IBA for all the cultivars. Anatomical analysis was done to describe the optimized culture conditions. Adventitious buds originated endogenously from meristematic regions of the vascular cambium, characterizing a direct organogenesis. Studies were also done to analyze the genetic transformation of the sweet orange cultivars Natal and Valencia and Rangpur lime via Agrobacterium. Several experiments were installed to define the period of Agrobacterium inoculation and co-cultivation, the presence or absence of acetoseryngone, the temperature of incubation and the explant condition (with or without a longitudinal cut). Transgenic plants were obtained using an inoculation period of 20 minutes and co-cultivation for 3 days at 23-27 °C in absence of acetoseryngone in the culture medium. Finally, a study of organogenesis induction, histological characterization and genetic transformation from internodal segments of mature plants of sweet orange cultivars Hamlin, Pera, Valencia and Natal was conducted. Organogenesis was induced in DBA3 modified medium supplemented with 1.0 mg.L -1 BAP and 0.5 mg.L -1 NAA. Histological analysis showed that the adventitious buds formed indirectly from the callus formed by successive cell divisions from the vascular cambium. Transgenic plants from mature tissue of Hamlin and Valencia sweet oranges were obtained using one day of co-cultivation at 24°C with or without the longitudinal sectioning of the explant for Hamlin and only when the explant was longitudinally sectioned for Valencia.

A contaminação de dornas por leveduras selvagens pode prejudicar o rendimento e a produtividade da produção industrial de etanol, inexistindo métodos eficientes para o controle deste tipo de contaminação. Facilidade, rapidez e o baixo custo seriam características desejáveis para o controle de leveduras que eventualmente contaminam o processo de fermentação. Com este objetivo, TAVARES (1989) desenvolveu um processo de produção de etanol com o controle de leveduras contaminantes, que utiliza um híbrido M606 de Saccharomyces cerevisiae de alta produtividade e resistente a nistatina, um antifúngico de amplo espectro que pode ser usado para garantir a pureza genética do inóculo industrial. Para facilitar a identificação de leveduras GOMES et al. (2000), utilizaram a propriedade de fluorescência expressada pelo gene GFP \"Green Fluorescent Protein\" sob o controle do promotor da da ADH2 em baixas concentrações de glicose. Associar estas duas propriedades em uma levedura industrial permitiria manter a pureza do inóculo e facilitaria a sua identificação. Com este objetivo, foram efetuados experimentos de transformação genética do híbrido M606 com o plasmídio pYGFP3 construído por Gomes et al (2000), sem obter o sucesso desejado. Por isto, como passo inicial para obtenção de ambas propriedades em híbrido altamente produtivo, optou-se pela metodologia de cruzamentos entre uma linhagem segregante haplóide resistente a nistatina M606-2c(n) e a linhagem X2904- GFP3 portadora do plasmídio pYGFP3. Alguns híbridos deste cruzamento natural foram selecionados, para posterior avaliação do nível de resistência à nistatina, da estabilidade do plasmídio pYGFP3 e da capacidade fermentativa. Verificou-se que os híbridos selecionados (P16, P34 e P42) foram capazes de crescer numa concentração de 10mg.L-1 de nistatina. Contudo, detectou-se instabilidade do plasmídio pYGFP3 em todos os híbridos selecionados. Os híbridos P34 e P42 demonstraram uma capacidade fermentativa inferior às linhagens controle, o que pode ser explicado pela fragilidade do sistema de membranas decorrente da natureza da resistência à nistatina. O híbrido P16 não apresentou diferenças na capacidade de fermentação em relação as linhagens controle. Apesar de obter híbridos resistentes a nistatina expressando o gene GFP3, verifica-se que há necessidade de modificar o plasmídio pYGFP3 tornando-o integrativo no genoma da levedura, para permitir a estabilidade do gene GFP3. / Vats contamination by wild yeasts can harm the efficiency and the productivity of ethanol industrial production and there are not efficient methods to control this type of contamination. Easiness, speed and the low cost would be desirable characteristics for the control of yeasts that eventually contaminate the fermentation process. With this aim, TAVARES (1989) developed an ethanol production process with the control of spoilage yeasts contaminants, that uses a Saccharomyces cerevisiae hybrid M606, of high productivity and resistant to the nystatin. It´s a wide spectrum antifungal that can be used to guarantee the genetic purity of the industrial inoculum. To facilitate the yeasts identification, GOMES et al. (2000) used the fluorescence property expressed by the GFP gene \"Green Fluorescent Protein\", that is controlled by the promoter of ADH2 in a low glucose concentrations. The association of these two properties in an industrial yeast strain would allow to maintain the purity of the inoculum and it would facilitate its identification. With this aim, an assay of genetic transformation of hybrid M606 with pYGFP3 plasmid built by Gomes et al (2000) was made, but it had not success. Therefore, as initial step for obtaining of both properties in hybrid highly productive, It was opted for the methodology of crossings between a nystatin resistant haploid segregant strain M606-2c(n) and the strain X2904-GFP3(n) harboring of the plasmid pYGFP3. Some hybrids were selected of this natural crossing, with subsequent evaluation of nystatin resistance level, stability of the pYGFP3 plasmid and fermentative capacity. The selected hybrids (P16, P34 and P42) were capable to grow in a concentration of 10mg.nystatin L-1. However, plasmidial instability of the pYGFP3 was detected in all the selected hybrids. The hybrids P34 and P42 showed a smaller fermentative capacity than control strain, which can be explained by the fragility of the membranes system due to the nature of the resistance to the nystatin. The hybrid P16 did not showed difference in the fermentative capacity to the strain control. In spite of obtaining resistant hybrid to the nystatin expressing the GFP3 gene, there is a need to modify the pYGFP3 plasmid, turning it integrative in the yeast genome to allow the gene stability GFP3.

Ph.D. (Biochemistry) / Genetically modified (GM) crops were first introduced in the 1980s for the production of medicinal products. Since then, areas designated to GM crops have expanded drastically, with the GM crops grown to enhance agricultural productivity, improve agricultural practices, and as a tool to address potential pressures that will be faced by the agricultural sector and to address the issue of food security. Currently, cultivated GM crops include cotton, maize, rapeseed and soybean, carrying agronomic traits such as herbicide tolerance and insect resistance. Following the genetic modification of crops, three possible outcomes can be anticipated: these outcomes include the GM crop produced being equivalent to its untransformed counterpart, the GM crop differing from its untransformed counterpart with several well-defined characteristics, and the GM crop differing from its untransformed counterpart with a multitude of complex characteristics. In cases where the GM crop is equivalent to the untransformed counterpart, no further testing is needed. In instances where several well-defined and characterised differences are found between the GM crop and the untransformed counterpart, safety assessments are performed targeting these differences. The assessments will determine the impact of these unintended and unexpected alterations of the intended enhancement of the GM crops. However, methods currently used to assess GM crops have been found to be lacking, since they only focus on environmental and product-specific risks. Further evidence is essential, as part of GM crop safety assessment, on the molecular characterisation of these crops. This evidence is based on the potential impact of the transformation event, integration of the transgene into the host plant, as well as unintended alterations such as altered gene expression that may occur to the host plant. These events may assist in the further detection of potential dangers of the GM crop. As a result of these highlighted gaps, a project was formulated to study the unintended genomic alterations that may occur during and following the production of a transgenic plant...