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L’îlot génomique SGI1 est un élément intégratif mobilisable identifié initialement chez le clone épidémique penta-résistant de Salmonella enterica Typhimurium DT104. La présence de SGI1 chez différents sérotypes de Salmonella et chez Proteus mirabilis a conduit à démontrer son transfert conjugatif. SGI1 s’excise du chromosome pour former un intermédiaire circulaire capable d’être mobilisé en trans par un élément conjugatif corésident. Dans la bactérie réceptrice, SGI1 s’intègre de manière site-spécifique grâce à l’intégrase codée par l’îlot. L’objectif de ce travail était d’étudier les mécanismes impliqués dans la mobilisation de l’îlot génomique. Des expériences de mobilisation de SGI1 avec des plasmides de différents groupes d’incompatibilités ont montré que seuls les plasmides de résistance du groupe IncA/C étaient capables de mobiliser l’îlot génomique. L’origine de transfert (oriT) de SGI1 a été identifiée sur un fragment de 135 pb capable de rendre mobilisable un plasmide non mobile. La diminution du transfert de SGI1 dépourvu de ce fragment a permis de confirmer la localisation de l’oriT. L’implication de l’ORF S020 dans le transfert de l’îlot a aussi été démontrée. Une autre région comprise entre les ORF S013 et S019 contient un élément indispensable au transfert de l’îlot. L’identification des différents composants moléculaires impliqués dans la mobilisation de SGI1 est une étape importante pour comprendre la dissémination de l’îlot génomique. / The Salmonella genomic island 1 is an integrative mobilizable element (IME) originally identified in epidemic multidrug-resistant Salmonella enterica Typhimurium DT104. The occurrence of SGI1 in several S. enterica serovars and recently in Proteus mirabilis has led to demonstrate its horizontal transfer. SGI1 excises from the donor chromosome to form a circular extrachromosomal intermediate that can be mobilized in trans to the recipient. SGI1 integrates site-specifically into the chromosome at the 3’ end of the trmE gene. Here, we have studied the mechanism of conjugative transfer of SGI1. First, we have shown by SGI1 mobilization assays with different plasmid incompatibility groups that only multidrug-resistance IncA/C plasmids were able to mobilize SGI1. The transfer origin of SGI1 has been located on a 135 bp DNA region by mobilization assays of a non mobile plasmid containing this region. The decrease in transfer frequency of a SGI1 lacking this putative oriT region confirmed this location. The involvement in the SGI1 transfer of the S020 ORF coding for a putative integrase was also demonstrated. One other region located between S013-S019 ORFs contained an element required for SGI1 mobilization. The identification of the different molecular components involved in SGI1 mobilization is an important step for understanding the dissemination of the genomic island.

Salmonella genomic island 1 (SGI1) est un élément intégratif mobilisable décrit pour la 1ère fois dans un clone penta-résistant de Salmonella Typhimurium DT104. Depuis, plusieurs variants et îlots apparentés (Proteus genomic island 1 (PGI1)) ont été rapportés dans différents sérotypes de Salmonella enterica et chez Proteus mirabilis. Ces îlots de résistance sont constitués d’un squelette plutôt stable et d’une région de multirésistance (MDR) variable. L’objectif de cette thèse était d’étudier ces îlots dans des souches cliniques de P. mirabilis (CHU de Dijon et Lariboisière à Paris) et de S. enterica (CHU de Dijon). La prévalence de ces îlots variait de 5 à 16% chez P. mirabilis ayant acquis au moins une résistance. L’étude génotypique a montré une grande diversité des souches mais également la présence de quelques clones porteurs de SGI1 ou PGI1. Le séquençage de ces îlots a mis en évidence la grande plasticité des régions MDR souvent en lien avec des mouvements d’IS26. Ces dernières permettent à la région MDR de s’enrichir en nouveaux gènes de résistance (ex : blaCTX-M-15) présents dans des structures antérieurement décrites sur des plasmides de clones d’entérobactéries répandus. De nombreuses espèces d’entérobactéries porteuses d’un plasmide IncA/C sont capables d’acquérir par conjugaison un îlot provenant d’une autre entérobactérie. Cet îlot s’intègre alors au niveau du site chromosomique spécifique (trmE). Sous pression antibiotique et en présence d’un plasmide IncA/C, les souches peuvent être complètement excisées de leur îlot. Ainsi, ces îlots sont des interfaces de résistance à la fois stables mais aussi dynamiques favorisant la dissémination des gènes de résistance. Une virulence accrue par la présence de ces îlots chez S. enterica n’a pas pu être confirmée ni dans le modèle d’infection expérimentale de C. elegans, ni dans une étude rétrospective chez l’homme (prévalence de 12%). En revanche, P. mirabilis avait tendance à être plus pathogène chez C. elegans lorsqu’il était porteur d’un îlot / Salmonella genomic island (SGI1) is an integrative mobilizable element initially described in an epidemic multidrug-resistant Salmonella Typhimurium DT104. Since this first report, many variants and related genomic islands (Proteus genomic island 1 (PGI1)) have been described among Salmonella enterica serovars and in Proteus mirabilis. These islands have a stable backbone and a highly variable multidrug-resistant (MDR) region. The objective of this work was to study SGI1 from clinical P. mirabilis isolates (University hospitals of Dijon and Lariboisière - Paris) and S. enterica (University hospital of Dijon) The prevalence of these islands ranged from 5% to 16% in P. mirabilis with at least one acquired resistance. The genotypic analysis revealed a wide diversity among isolates but also the presence of some clonal isolates harbouring SGI1 or PGI1. Genomic island sequencing revealed the great plasticity of MDR regions, primarily mediated by IS26. Thanks to IS26 movements, the MDR region gains resistance genes (such as blaCTX-M-15) present in structures initially detected in plasmids from widely distributed Enterobacteriaceae. Many species of Enterobacteriaceae that harbour IncA/C plasmids are able to acquire islands by conjugation. These islands are then incorporated into specific sites on the chromosome (trmE). They could also be completely excised from Enterobacteriaceae under antibiotic pressure in the presence of an IncA/C plasmid. Genomic islands should be regarded on the one hand as a steady interface of resistance and on the other hand as a dynamic interface conveying resistance genes. Finally, SGI1 of S. enterica was not found to increase virulence in a Caenorhabditis elegans model or in a retrospective clinical study (12% of prevalence). However, it seems that P. mirabilis becomes more virulent when it harbours SGI1 in Caenorhabditis elegans

L’objectif de ce travail a été de caractériser la souche MPEC Escherichia coli P4. Une étude phylogénétique a montré qu’elle appartenait au groupe phylogénétique A de l’espèce E. coli et que son génome “core” se rapprochait de celui de la souche commensale non pathogène E. coli K12 MG1655 appartenant également au groupe A. Une recherche au sein de son génome de gènes codant différents facteurs de virulence connus chez les autres pathotypes de l’espèce E. coli a permis de détecter uniquement la présence du gène traT, codant un facteur de résistance au sérum. Un criblage de quinze loci d’ARNt connus pour accueillir fréquemment des îlots génomiques, effectué au sein de son génome, a révélé, pour sept d’entre eux la présence de telles structures. Le séquençage partiel ou complet des régions aval à ces sept loci a montré la présence systématique de séquences nucléotidiques différentes de celles présentes chez E. coli K12 MG1655. Si l’analyse du contenu de ces îlots n’a pas encore permis d’expliquer directement la virulence d’E. coli P4, leur mise en évidence est une première de ce type au sein du pathotype MPEC et laisse envisager la découverte d’autres régions génomiques spécifiques à ce pathotype, pouvant expliquer son tropisme et sa nature. Par ailleurs, afin d’évaluer le rôle d’E. coli P4 dans la caséinolyse élevée du lait observée lors d’une mammite bovine, une sécrétion apparemment constitutive de quatre protéases extracellulaires a été mise en évidence par zymographie caséines. L’activité caséinolytique de ces enzymes ne semble toutefois pas significative, laissant envisager plutôt un rôle dans la virulence de la souche / The objective of this work was to characterize the MPEC Escherichia coli P4 strain. A phylogenetic study showed that it belongs to the phylogenetic group A of the E. coli species and that its core genome is similar to the one of the commensal non-pathogenic E. coli K12 MG1655 strain which also belongs to the group A. A search in its genome of different genes encoding virulence factors known among other pathotypes of the E. coli species was done and only the traT gene, encoding a serum resistance factor, was detected. A screening of fifteen tRNA loci known for frequently hosting genomic islands, made in its genome, revealed for seven of them the presence of such structures. The partial or complete sequencing of the regions downstream from these seven loci showed the systematic presence of nucleotide sequences different from those present in E. coli K12 MG1655. If the content analysis of these islands does not yet explain the virulence of E. coli P4, their highlighting is the first of this kind in the pathotype MPEC and suggests the discovery of other genomic regions specific to this pathotype, which may explain its tropism and its nature. In addition, to assessing the role of E. coli P4 in milk caseinolysis observed during bovine mastitis, a constitutive secretion of four extracellular proteases was highlighted by casein zymography. However, the caseinolytic activity of these enzymes does not seem significant. This fact may suggest a role in virulence of the strain

Les bactéries magnétotactiques (MTB) ont la capacité de s'orienter dans un champ magnétique grâce à un organite procaryote constitué d'un nanocristal magnétique biominéralisé et entouré d'une membrane biologique : le magnétosome. La synthèse de cet organite est un processus complexe contrôlé génétiquement par une série de gènes spécifiques aux MTB (les gènes mam) qui sont regroupés sur le chromosome bactérien. Chez la souche modèle Magnetospirillum magneticum AMB-1 cet ensemble de gènes forme un îlot génomique (MAI) auquel s'ajoute un second groupe distinct de 7 gènes homologues aux gènes mam (gènes mam-like) récemment identifié dont le rôle physiologique est très peu caractérisé. Parmi les produits des gènes mam, MamK est impliqué dans l'alignement des magnétosomes. Cette « actin-like » prokaryote qui forme des filaments selon un processus ATP-dépendant a été caractérisée ces dernières années. Dans le MIS de AMB-1, un gène homologue mamK-like a été identifié. Ainsi différentes approches pluridisciplinaires ont été mises en place pour comprendre le rôle de MamK et MamK-like. L'expression des gènes du MIS a été quantifiée. Les souches dépourvues des gènes mamK et mamK-like ainsi que le double mutant ont été obtenues puis phénotypées par différentes techniques d'imagerie. Les interactions entre les deux protéines ont été également testées. Enfin, les deux protéines ont été et leurs propriétés biochimiques caractérisées. L'ensemble de ces données nous permet de proposer un modèle selon lequel MamK et MamK-like participeraient tous deux à l'alignement des magnétosomes bactériens, vraisemblablement par la formation de filaments hybrides. / Magnetotactic bacteria (MTB) have the ability to orient in a magnetic field through a prokaryotic organelle composed of a magnetic nanocrystal surrounded by a biological membrane: the magnetosome. The synthesis of this organelle is a genetically complex process controlled by a series of specific genes (mam genes) grouped together on the bacterial chromosome. In the strain model Magnetospirillum magneticum AMB-1 this set of genes form a genomic island (MAI) and a second distinct group of seven genes homologous to mam genes (mam-like genes) recently identified. The physiological role of this islet magnetosome (MIS) is very little characterized to date.Among the products of mam genes, MamK is involved in the alignment of the magnetosomes. This « actin-like » which forms prokaryote filaments according an ATP - dependent process has been characterized in recent years. In the MIS of AMB-1, a homologous gene mamK-like was identified. And various multidisciplinary approaches have been developed to understand the role of MamK and MamK-like. The MIS gene expression was quantified. The strains lacking genes of mamK, mamK-like and the obtained of double mutant were then phenotyped by different imaging techniques. The interactions between the two proteins were also tested. Finally, the two proteins were overexpressed and their biochemical properties characterized. All of these data allows us to propose a model whereby MamK and MamK-like participate in both the alignment of bacterial magnetosomes, presumably by the formation of hybrid filaments.

Der Austausch von genetischem Material über horizontalen Gentransfer, stellt einen wichtigen Mechanismus in der bakteriellen Evolution dar. Legionella pneumophila Stämme codieren für verschiedene Typ IV Sekretionssysteme (T4SS) und integrative konjugative Elemente, die zur genomischen Variabilität der intrazellulären Erreger beitragen. L. pneumophila Corby codiert auf der genomischen Insel Trb-1 für ein funktionelles Konjugations- und T4ASS. Trb-1 ist innerhalb des tRNAPro Gens integriert und kann in einer chromosomalen oder zirkulären episomalen Form existieren. Zusätzlich zu den trb/tra Genen sind auf der Insel eine Integrase (int-1) und die Gene lvrRABC der Legionella vir Region (lvr) lokalisiert. Durch die Deletion von int-1 konnte gezeigt werden, dass die Exzision von Trb-1 unter Beteiligung der Integrase erfolgt. Zudem wurde in dieser Arbeit zum ersten Mal demonstriert, dass die lvr-Region, vor allem der putative Phagen-Repressor LvrR an der Regulation der Exzision von Trb-1 beteiligt ist. Die Konjugation von Trb-1 in L. oakridgensis, hatte keinen Effekt auf die in vivo Fitness der Transkonjuganten in humanen Makrophagen. Die genomischen Inseln LpcGI-1 und LpcGI-2 codieren für ein neues putatives GI-T4SS. Für LpcGI-2 konnte erstmals gezeigt werden, dass das T4SS funktionell ist und die Konjugation der genomischen Insel in einen anderen L. pneumophila Stamm vermitteln kann. LpcGI-2 kann anschließend ortsspezifisch in das Genom der Transkonjuganten integriert werden. LpcGI-1 und LpcGI-2 werden vom tRNAThr bzw. tRNAMet Gen flankiert und können in verschiedenen chromosomalen und zirkulären, episomalen Formen existieren. Die Exzision von LpcGI-2 erfolgt ähnlich zu Trb-1, in Abhängigkeit einer ortsspezifischen Integrase. Im Genom von Lp Corby wurden zwei weitere genomische Inseln (LpcGI-Asn und LpcGI-Phe) identifiziert. In silico Analysen zeigten zudem, dass genomische Inseln mit einer Ähnlichkeit zu Trb-1, LpcGI-2 bzw. LpcGI-1 im Genus Legionella verbreitet sind. / Exchange of genetic information by horizontal gene transfer is an important mechanism for the evolution of bacterial genomes. Legionella pneumophila strains encode different type IV secretion systems and integrative conjugative elements contribute to the variability of the intracellular pathogen. The genomic island Trb-1 of L. pneumophila Corby encodes a functional conjugation and T4ASS. Trb-1 is integrated within the tRNAPro gene and can exist in a chromosomal or an episomal circular form. In addition to the trb/tra genes, a site-specific integrase (int-1) and a Legionella vir region (lvrRABC) are also localized on the genomic island. By deleting the int-1 gene, it could be demonstrated that the excision and of Trb-1 is integrase dependent. Furthermore, in this work it was shown for the first time that the lvr region and especially the putative phage repressor LvrR, is involved in the regulation of Trb-1 excision. Conjugation of Trb-1 in L. oakridgensis does not influence the in vivo fitness of the transconjugants in human macrophages. The genomic islands LpcGI-1 and LpcGI-2 encode a new putative T4SS. For the first time it could be demonstrated, that the T4SS localized on LpcGI-2 is functional. Although LpcGI-2 could be mobilized and transferred via conjugation to another L. pneumophila strain, followed by the site-specific integration into the genome of the transconjugants. LpcGI-1 and LpcGI-2 are flanked by the tRNAThr or tRNAMet gene respectively. Both islands can exist in different chromosomal and episomal forms. The excision of LpcGI-2 occurs similar to Trb-1 in an integrase dependent manner. Two additional genomic islands (LpcGI-Asn and LpcGI-Phe) could be identified in the genome of Lp Corby. Moreover, data of the in silico analysis demonstrated, that genomic islands similar to Trb-1, LpcGI-2 and LpcGI-1 are distributed within the genus Legionella.

Le complexe Burkholderia cepacia (Bcc) englobe 17 espèces retrouvées dans les infections pulmonaires d'individus atteints de mucoviscidose. Les bactéries de ce complexe sont présentes dans les sols, la rhizosphère de grandes cultures, les eaux usées et peuvent également être rencontrées dans le cadre d'infections nosocomiales. En France, les espèces B. multivorans et B. cenocepacia (Bcen) sont les espèces majoritaires au niveau des infections de patients atteints de mucoviscidose. Divers clones épidémiques ont été décrits au sein de l’espèce Bcen dont le clone ET12 associé au "syndrome cepacia". En 2004, une épidémie nosocomiale impliquant un clone du Bcc est survenue dans un hôpital de l’Ain. Durant ce travail, l’origine de ce clone (B&B), sa classification au sein du Bcc et certains phénomènes génétiques liés à son émergence ont été étudiés. Cela a permis d’identifier ce clone comme appartenant à l’espèce Bcen et une forte proximité de celui-ci avec la lignée ET12. L’étude des facteurs transcriptionnels de la famille σ70 au sein du Bcc a mis en évidence une structure génétique similaire entre la lignée ET12 et ce clone, mais différente de celle observée chez les autres espèces du Bcc. L’analyse d’éléments génétiques répétés de la famille des séquences d’insertion (IS) a cependant permis d’observer une organisation génomique distincte de la lignée ET12. Celle-ci a été reliée à des phénomènes d’instabilité génétique notamment à des phénomènes d’acquisition d’éléments génétiques mobiles de type îlot génomique. L’ensemble de ce travail a permis de caractériser un ensemble de phénomènes génétiques pouvant expliquer l’émergence de clones épidémiques tels que le clone B&B. / The Burkholderia cepacia complex (Bcc) comprises 17 species found in lung infections of individuals with cystic fibrosis. The bacteria of this complex are present in the soil, the rhizosphere of field crops, wastewater and may also be encountered in nosocomial infections. In France, the B. multivorans and B. cenocepacia species are the major species in infections of cystic fibrosis patients. Various epidemic clones have been described within the B. cenocepacia species whose ET12 clone associated with "cepacia syndrome". In 2004, a nosocomial outbreak involving a clone of Bcc occurred in a French hospital. During this outbreak, origin of this clone (B&B clone), its classification within the Bcc and several genetic events associated with its emergence have been studied. These investigations have identified this clone as belonging to the species B. cenocepacia with a strong proximity with the ET12 lineage. The study of transcriptional factors of σ70 family within the Bcc has revealed a similar genetic structure between the ET12 lineage and this clone, but different from that observed in other species of Bcc. Analysis of genetic elements repeated family of insertion sequences (IS), however, allowed to observe a distinct genomic organization of the ET12 lineage. It has been linked to phenomen of genetic instability including acquisition of mobile genetic elements like genomic island (GI). All of this work has helped to characterize a set of genetic events may explain the emergence of epidemic clones such as clone B&B.

Genomas bacterianos são extremamente dinâmicos e boa parte dessa dinâmica ocorre devido a transferência horizontal e aquisição de DNA exógeno, um processo natural e fundamental para a evolução, adaptação e diversificação dos microrganismos. Ilhas genômicas são grandes regiões do cromossomo bacteriano adquiridas por transferência horizontal e estão presentes em apenas algumas linhagens, podendo conferir alguma vantagem adaptativa. Em Pseudomonas aeruginosa, até o momento foram caracterizadas pelo menos dezesseis ilhas genômicas e cada uma delas confere características diferentes a seus hospedeiros. Em P. aeruginosa UCBPP-PA14 (ou simplesmente PA14), encontram-se duas ilhas de patogenicidade denominadas PAPI-1 e PAPI-2, sendo a primeira a maior e a mais estudada, contendo 115 ORFs (“Open Reading Frame”, ou quadros abertos de leitura). Dentre estes, o gene int codifica uma integrase essencial para a excisão e integração de PAPI-1, e o gene soj é necessário para a manutenção da ilha na célula e é expresso apenas quando esta se encontra na forma epissomal. PAPI-1 codifica um provável sistema de secreção tipo IV (T4SS), similar ao do elemento móvel ICEHin1056, responsável pela transferência deste para outras bactérias. O objetivo deste trabalho foi identificar fatores genéticos e ambientais que contribuem para a transferência de PAPI-1 entre linhagens de P. aeruginosa. Foi observado que os mutantes por transposon nos genes PAPI-1 PA14_59860, PA14_59880, PA14_59920 e PA14_59940 têm a frequência de transferência de PAPI-1 diminuída, mas os genes interrompidos nesses mutantes não são essenciais para a excisão da ilha. Também foi mostrado que os reguladores percepção de quorum RhlR e MvfR têm influência na expressão do gene int, mas não de soj. O terceiro regulador de percepção de quorum, LasR, assim como a proteína H-NS MvaT, não tem influência na expressão de int e de soj. Ensaios de RT-PCR quantitativos mostraram que o choque térmico aumentou os níveis do mRNA de soj, mas não de int, corroborando dados previamente sugeridos pela literatura, que mostram uma maior freqüência de transferência de PAPI-1 nessas condições. Também foi analisado se o segundo mensageiro celular em bactérias, c-di-GMP, poderia contribuir para a excisão/manutenção de PAPI-1. Alterações nas concentrações deste segundo mensageiro pela superexpressão de proteínas responsáveis por sua síntese ou degradação não foram capazes de afetar a excisão/manutenção de PAPI-1. Houve diminuição na frequência de transferência de PAPI-1 a partir de linhagens doadoras superexpressando uma diguanilato ciclase ou uma fosfodiesterase de c-di-GMP, mas provavelmente este efeito não se deve aos níveis alterados desse segundo mensageiro. Em Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. citri 306 (XAC), uma região de 86 kb possui uma grande semelhança com PAPI-1 na organização dos genes. Além disso, possui uma série de ORFs relacionados aos genes “core” que definem uma família de ilhas genômicas sintênicas das quais PAPI-1 faz parte. Entretanto, os genes acessórios encontrados entre os blocos de genes conservados varia muito entre PAPI-1 e a região de XAC. Foi determinado que esta região de XAC não pode se excisar do cromossomo nas condições analisadas. Por fim, com o intuito de verificar as possíveis interações entre os produtos dos genes conservados em PAPI-1 e XAC, ensaios de duplo-híbrido foram realizados, porém não foi possível determiná-las, visto que apenas resultados falsos positivos foram obtidos. Este trabalho mostrou pela primeira vez que a percepção de quorum está envolvida com a expressão de soj e determinou uma extensa similaridade entre essa ilha e uma região do genoma de XAC / Bacterial genomes are extremely dynamic mostly because of horizontal gene transfer, a natural and fundamental process for evolution, adaptation and diversification of microorganisms. Genomic islands are large DNA segments acquired by horizontal gene transfer which are present only in a few strains and may confer some adaptative advantage. At least sixteen genomic islands have been characterized in Pseudomonas aeruginosa to date and each confers different characteristics to its host strain. P. aeruginosa UCBPP-PA14 (PA14) harbors two pathogenicity islands named PAPI-1 and PAPI-2. PAPI-1 is the largest one, carrying 115 open reading frames (ORFs). Among these, int codes for an integrase essential for PAPI-1 excision and integration, and soj is required for maintaining PAPI-1 in the cells, being expressed only when this island is in an episomal, circular form. PAPI-1 also harbors genes coding for a type four secretion system (T4SS) similar to the mobile element ICEHin1056, which is responsible for transferring this element to other bacteria. In this work, we show that transposon insertion in PAPI-1 genes PA14_59860, PA14_59880, PA14_59920 and PA14_59940 lowered the frequency of conjugation of PAPI-1 from PA14 to other bacteria, but those genes were not essential for PAPI-1 excision. Quorum sensing regulators RhlR and MvfR had a role in int expression, but did not alter soj transcription. The third quorum sensing regulator LasR, as well as the H-NS protein MvaT, did not alter both int and soj expression. Quantitative RT-PCR assays showed that cells incubated at heat shock conditions present higher levels of soj, mRNA, confirming published data that showed an increase in PAPI-1 transfer in these conditions. It was also analyzed whether the second messenger c-di-GMP would contribute to PAPI-1 excision/maintenance. Changes in the levels of this second messenger in cells overexpressing proteins responsible for its synthesis or degradation did not affect PAPI-1 excision and maintenance. A decrease in PAPI-1 transfer frequency was detected when those cells were used as donors in conjugation, but this effect cannot be attributed to the altered c-di-GMP levels. In Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. citri 306 (XAC), an 86 kb genome region shares similarity with PAPI-1 regarding gene homology and organization. It also carries ORFs related to the core genes that define a syntenic family of genomic islands that includes PAPI-1. Nevertheless, the accessory genes dispersed among the clusters of conserved genes are not related, when comparing PAPI-1 and this region in XAC. An epissomal form of this putative XAC island could not be detected in the conditions tested in this work. Finally, in order to verify interactions involving the conserved proteins in PAPI-1 and XAC, two hybrid assays were carried out, but only false positives results were obtained

Genomas bacterianos são extremamente dinâmicos e boa parte dessa dinâmica ocorre devido a transferência horizontal e aquisição de DNA exógeno, um processo natural e fundamental para a evolução, adaptação e diversificação dos microrganismos. Ilhas genômicas são grandes regiões do cromossomo bacteriano adquiridas por transferência horizontal e estão presentes em apenas algumas linhagens, podendo conferir alguma vantagem adaptativa. Em Pseudomonas aeruginosa, até o momento foram caracterizadas pelo menos dezesseis ilhas genômicas e cada uma delas confere características diferentes a seus hospedeiros. Em P. aeruginosa UCBPP-PA14 (ou simplesmente PA14), encontram-se duas ilhas de patogenicidade denominadas PAPI-1 e PAPI-2, sendo a primeira a maior e a mais estudada, contendo 115 ORFs (“Open Reading Frame”, ou quadros abertos de leitura). Dentre estes, o gene int codifica uma integrase essencial para a excisão e integração de PAPI-1, e o gene soj é necessário para a manutenção da ilha na célula e é expresso apenas quando esta se encontra na forma epissomal. PAPI-1 codifica um provável sistema de secreção tipo IV (T4SS), similar ao do elemento móvel ICEHin1056, responsável pela transferência deste para outras bactérias. O objetivo deste trabalho foi identificar fatores genéticos e ambientais que contribuem para a transferência de PAPI-1 entre linhagens de P. aeruginosa. Foi observado que os mutantes por transposon nos genes PAPI-1 PA14_59860, PA14_59880, PA14_59920 e PA14_59940 têm a frequência de transferência de PAPI-1 diminuída, mas os genes interrompidos nesses mutantes não são essenciais para a excisão da ilha. Também foi mostrado que os reguladores percepção de quorum RhlR e MvfR têm influência na expressão do gene int, mas não de soj. O terceiro regulador de percepção de quorum, LasR, assim como a proteína H-NS MvaT, não tem influência na expressão de int e de soj. Ensaios de RT-PCR quantitativos mostraram que o choque térmico aumentou os níveis do mRNA de soj, mas não de int, corroborando dados previamente sugeridos pela literatura, que mostram uma maior freqüência de transferência de PAPI-1 nessas condições. Também foi analisado se o segundo mensageiro celular em bactérias, c-di-GMP, poderia contribuir para a excisão/manutenção de PAPI-1. Alterações nas concentrações deste segundo mensageiro pela superexpressão de proteínas responsáveis por sua síntese ou degradação não foram capazes de afetar a excisão/manutenção de PAPI-1. Houve diminuição na frequência de transferência de PAPI-1 a partir de linhagens doadoras superexpressando uma diguanilato ciclase ou uma fosfodiesterase de c-di-GMP, mas provavelmente este efeito não se deve aos níveis alterados desse segundo mensageiro. Em Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. citri 306 (XAC), uma região de 86 kb possui uma grande semelhança com PAPI-1 na organização dos genes. Além disso, possui uma série de ORFs relacionados aos genes “core” que definem uma família de ilhas genômicas sintênicas das quais PAPI-1 faz parte. Entretanto, os genes acessórios encontrados entre os blocos de genes conservados varia muito entre PAPI-1 e a região de XAC. Foi determinado que esta região de XAC não pode se excisar do cromossomo nas condições analisadas. Por fim, com o intuito de verificar as possíveis interações entre os produtos dos genes conservados em PAPI-1 e XAC, ensaios de duplo-híbrido foram realizados, porém não foi possível determiná-las, visto que apenas resultados falsos positivos foram obtidos. Este trabalho mostrou pela primeira vez que a percepção de quorum está envolvida com a expressão de soj e determinou uma extensa similaridade entre essa ilha e uma região do genoma de XAC / Bacterial genomes are extremely dynamic mostly because of horizontal gene transfer, a natural and fundamental process for evolution, adaptation and diversification of microorganisms. Genomic islands are large DNA segments acquired by horizontal gene transfer which are present only in a few strains and may confer some adaptative advantage. At least sixteen genomic islands have been characterized in Pseudomonas aeruginosa to date and each confers different characteristics to its host strain. P. aeruginosa UCBPP-PA14 (PA14) harbors two pathogenicity islands named PAPI-1 and PAPI-2. PAPI-1 is the largest one, carrying 115 open reading frames (ORFs). Among these, int codes for an integrase essential for PAPI-1 excision and integration, and soj is required for maintaining PAPI-1 in the cells, being expressed only when this island is in an episomal, circular form. PAPI-1 also harbors genes coding for a type four secretion system (T4SS) similar to the mobile element ICEHin1056, which is responsible for transferring this element to other bacteria. In this work, we show that transposon insertion in PAPI-1 genes PA14_59860, PA14_59880, PA14_59920 and PA14_59940 lowered the frequency of conjugation of PAPI-1 from PA14 to other bacteria, but those genes were not essential for PAPI-1 excision. Quorum sensing regulators RhlR and MvfR had a role in int expression, but did not alter soj transcription. The third quorum sensing regulator LasR, as well as the H-NS protein MvaT, did not alter both int and soj expression. Quantitative RT-PCR assays showed that cells incubated at heat shock conditions present higher levels of soj, mRNA, confirming published data that showed an increase in PAPI-1 transfer in these conditions. It was also analyzed whether the second messenger c-di-GMP would contribute to PAPI-1 excision/maintenance. Changes in the levels of this second messenger in cells overexpressing proteins responsible for its synthesis or degradation did not affect PAPI-1 excision and maintenance. A decrease in PAPI-1 transfer frequency was detected when those cells were used as donors in conjugation, but this effect cannot be attributed to the altered c-di-GMP levels. In Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. citri 306 (XAC), an 86 kb genome region shares similarity with PAPI-1 regarding gene homology and organization. It also carries ORFs related to the core genes that define a syntenic family of genomic islands that includes PAPI-1. Nevertheless, the accessory genes dispersed among the clusters of conserved genes are not related, when comparing PAPI-1 and this region in XAC. An epissomal form of this putative XAC island could not be detected in the conditions tested in this work. Finally, in order to verify interactions involving the conserved proteins in PAPI-1 and XAC, two hybrid assays were carried out, but only false positives results were obtained

Horizontal gene transfer enables acquisition and dissemination of novel traits including antibiotic resistance and virulence among bacteria. Frequently such traits are gained through the acquisition of clusters of functionally related genes, often referred to as genomic islands (GIs). Quantifying horizontal flow of GIs and assessing their contributions to the emergence and evolution of novel metabolic traits in bacterial organisms are central to understanding the evolution of bacteria in general and the evolution of pathogenicity and antibiotic resistance in particular, a focus of this dissertation study. Methods for GI detection have also evolved with advances in sequencing and bioinformatics, however, comprehensive assessment of these methods has been lacking. This motivated us to assess the performance of current methods for identifying islands on broad datasets of well-characterized bacterial genomes and synthetic genomes, and leverage this information to develop a novel approach that circumvents the limitations of the current state-of-the-art in GI detection. The main findings from our assessment studies were 1) the methods have complementary strengths, 2) a gene-clustering method utilizing codon usage bias as the discriminant criterion, namely, JS-CB, is most efficient in localizing genomic islands, specifically the well-studied SCCmec resistance island in methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) genomes, and 3) in general, the bottom up, gene by gene analysis methods, are inherently limited in their ability to decipher large structures such as GIs as single entities within bacterial genomes. We adapted a top-down approach based on recursive segmentation and agglomerative clustering and developed a GI prediction tool, GEMINI, which combined compositional features with segment context information to localize GIs in the Liverpool epidemic strain of Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Application of GEMINI to the genome of P. aeruginosa LESB58 demonstrated its ability to delineate experimentally verified GIs in the LESB58 genome. GEMINI identified several novel islands including pathogenicity islands and revealed the mosaic structure of several LESB58 harbored GIs. A new GI identification approach, CAFE, with broad applicability was developed. CAFE incorporates biological information encoded in a genome within the statistical framework of segmentation and clustering to more robustly localize GIs in the genome. CAFE identifies genomic islands lacking markers by virtue of their association with genomic islands with markers originating from the same source. This is made possible by performing marker enrichment and phyletic pattern analyses within the integrated framework of recursive segmentation and clustering. CAFE compared favorably with frequently used methods for genomic island detection on synthetic test datasets and on a test-set of known islands from 15 well-characterized bacterial species. These tools can be readily adapted for cataloging GIs in just sequenced, yet uncharacterized genomes.