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Part I: Systematic Literature Review. Dysregulation of the motivational and incentive functions that underlie goal setting and goal pursuit is thought to be a key factor implicated in the aetiology of Major Depressive Disorder. Although research over the past two decades has shown that motivational and cognitive factors can play an important role in increasing negative affect and making individuals vulnerable to depression, much of this work has involved dysphoric and non-depressed samples and much less is known about their role in the maintenance of and recovery from clinical depression. The objective of the present study was therefore to identify and synthesize the evidence from studies that examined goals, goal pursuit and goal orientation in clinically depressed individuals. Only 9 studies meeting the inclusion criteria could be identified through systematic literature searches and were heterogeneous in design and quality. The results therefore do not allow strong conclusions to be drawn and need to be interpreted with caution. Bearing this caveat in mind, the findings did not support the idea that depressed individuals set fewer, less valued or more avoidant personal goals than non-depressed individual and suggested that problems were more likely to lie in the motivational and cognitive processes governing goal engagement and goal pursuit. Factors identified by the present studies likely to play a significant role in disrupting motivational processes and promoting maladaptive strategies of goal pursuit were perceived goal attainability, perceived lack of control, personal resources and skills required, type of goal focus, lack of goal specificity and goal engagement and disengagement processes. The results of two randomised clinical trials further suggested that therapies focusing on goal dysregulation in patients identified to lack adaptive strategies for goal pursuit and goal reengagement may be more effective than standard models. These findings identified promising areas for future research and highlight the importance of understanding individual profiles and subtypes of depression in order to target key areas of dysregulation and tailor treatment accordingly and in collaboration with the patient. The review highlighted the paucity of good quality studies involving samples of clinically depressed individuals and the need for more translational work focusing on clinically significant outcomes and developing reliable measures to assess day-to-day goal engagement and pursuit in depressed individuals. Abstract - Part II: Empirical paper. Goal orientation theory suggests that adopting a self-worth goal orientation (seeking self-validation and avoiding proof of worthlessness) may make individuals more vulnerable to depression, whereas pursuing learning goals (seeking personal growth and improving one's abilities) might represent a protective factor. This study examined whether adopting different goal orientations following negative performance feedback and unfavourable social comparison affected mood and performance on a subsequent performance task. Trait goal orientation was assessed in a sample of 86 U.K. university students who were allocated to three experimental groups receiving self-worth goal, learning goal and no instructions after receiving negative feedback on the first performance task. The findings provided some support for the original predictions of goal orientation theory (Dykman, 1998). Validation-seeking was associated with greater anticipatory anxiety following a negative event as well as reduced confidence when faced with a performance challenge. However, the results provided no substantial evidence to suggest that adopting a 'state' learning goal orientation vs. self-worth goal orientation mitigates the experience of negative affect or helplessness responses. Potential implications of the findings regarding the utility of the goal orientation construct as a predictor of depression vulnerability are discussed in the light of methodological limitations of the present study.

While a substantial body of research has documented how consumers' levels of progress, in general, influence their motivation in goal pursuit, the changes in the determinants of motivation in different stages of goal pursuit and their impact on consumers' self-regulation remain largely unexplored. Specifically, what are the factors consumers focus on when they first start to pursue a goal versus when they are approaching the end point of the pursuit? My dissertation explores this important question from three different angles: the perceived velocity, the mental representation of progress level, and the perceived closeness with others who are pursuing the same goal. Through three essays, we found that when people first begin to pursue a goal and the attainability of the goal is a concern, they are motivated by a fast speed of progressing, tend to exaggerate the progress they have made so far, and seek companionship from others who are pursuing the same goal, to enhance the belief that the goal is indeed attainable. However, once they reach the advanced stage of the pursuit and the attainability of the goal is relatively secured, they switch to focus on the remaining discrepancy and seek to reduce this gap in a timely manner; therefore, in this advanced stage of the pursuit they are conversely motivated by a slow speed of progressing, tend to downplay the progress they have made to exaggerate the remaining discrepancy that still needs to be completed, and such intense progress monitoring also leads to competitiveness against others who are pursuing the same goal as them. / text

Metas de processo decisório (e.g., maximizar a precisão ou minimizar o esforço em uma escolha) determinam o número de opções consideradas antes de uma compra. Quatro experimentos são utilizados como evidência para mostrar que a relação entre as metas de benefício influencia na execução de metas de processo decisório. Quando metas de benefício estão em conflito (e.g., comprar um carro de prestígio, mas barato), torna-se mais difícil de se executar metas de processos decisórios. Consequentemente, a busca de informações termina antes (depois) quando uma pessoa está tentando maximizar a precisão (minimizar o esforço) em uma decisão. Quando metas de benefício são complementares (e.g., comprar um carro de prestígio e divertido), torna-se mais fácil de se executar metas de processo. Consequentemente, a busca de informações termina depois quando uma pessoa está tentando maximizar a precisão de uma decisão, mas não há efeito na execução da meta de minimização de esforço devido a um efeito de piso. Esses efeitos implicam que metas de processo decisório são possuídas com a utilização de meios de processo decisório (e.g., atividades de avaliação e de comparação) que podem se tornar menos ou mais eficazes na medida em que a busca de informações continua. / Decision process goals (e.g., maximize accuracy, minimize effort) determine de number of options considered prior to making a purchase. Four experiments are used to provide evidence that the relationship between benefit goals influences the execution of decision process goals. When benefit goals are in conflict (e.g., purchase a prestigious, thrifty car), it becomes more difficult to pursue a decision process goal. Consequently, search ends earlier (later) when a person is trying to maximize accuracy (minimize effort). When benefit goals are complementary (i.e., purchase a prestigious, fun car), it becomes easier to pursue a decision process goal. Consequently, search ends later when a person is trying to maximize accuracy, but there is no effect on the execution of the minimize effort goal due to a floor effect. These effects imply that decision process goals are pursued using decision process means (e.g., evaluative activities, comparison activities) that can become more or less efficacious as search proceeds.

This dissertation comprises three essays that investigate how goal progress influences information processing and subsequent goal pursuit. Essay 1 demonstrates how perceived goal progress influences construal level. I propose that people perceiving low progress will pay more attention to specific means or subacts, which are required to effectively achieve their goals (a lower level of construal), whereas people perceiving high progress will consider the general meaning or value of their goal (a higher level of construal). Based on this relationship between goal progress and construal level, I further predict that fit between goal progress and goal construal (i.e., abstract vs. concrete goal construal) will enhance self-regulation as a result of increasing engagement. Across various domains of self-regulation, I show that fit between goal progress and goal construal increases engagement, which in turn influences subsequent self-regulation. Extending the motivational influence of fit between goal progress and construal level, essay 2 shows how to effectively persuade people to pursue their goals depending on goal progress. Based on the relationship between goal progress and construal level in essay 1, I propose that fit between goal progress and the construal level of message framing leads to greater persuasion than would nonfit. Three studies reveal that as people perceive greater progress, messages framed in an abstract, high construal level are perceived to be more persuasive than messages framed in a concrete, low construal level. Finally, essay 3 demonstrates how goal progress affects subsequent goal pursuit, specifically perceptions of and preferences for means that serve a single (i.e., unifinal means) or multiple goals (i.e., multifinal means). Based on cognitive theories of goals and motivation, I show that greater goal progress leads people to structure goals more inclusively than lesser goal progress. The inclusive structures further increase perceived instrumentality and preferences for multifinal means versus unifinal means. Across three studies, I demonstrate that greater goal progress increases perceived instrumentality of multifinal means relative to unifinal means. I further show that the inclusive representations of goals and means underlie the impact of greater goal progress on the perceived instrumentality of and preferences for multifinal means.

This thesis examines potential associations between trait approach motivation and related measures, the everyday experience of affect and goal pursuit, and reward-related neural responses. The Behavioural Activation System (BAS) is a core motivational system, subserved by the neural reward circuitry, eliciting approach-type behaviour and positive emotion when activated by appetitive stimuli. Deficits in BAS sensitivity are thought to underlie the lack of motivation and positive affect (PA) that characterise anhedonia, whilst hyperactivation of the BAS has been linked to the increased goal-directed behaviour and positive affectivity associated with hypomania. In order to explore relationships between BAS sensitivity, goal pursuit, and reward processing, young participants, recruited from the student population (N = 65), and older participants, from the community (N = 63), underwent a 7-day period of experience sampling (ESM) to provide a naturalistic measure of momentary affect and goal-focused motivation. Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI; in a subset of n = 28 and n = 31 respectively) was then used to investigate individual differences in sensitivity of brain reward-related systems to various social and non-social rewards. Limited support was found for the relationship between BAS traits and the more motivational aspects of goal pursuit and reward processing, whilst anhedonia seemed to pertain more to reward consumption, with few links to everyday goal pursuit. This would indicate that anhedonia might not be as closely related to BAS sensitivity as was initially anticipated. Finally, in order to examine real-world correlates of neural activation, the data from the naturalistic measure were correlated with reward-related activation. Everyday PA correlated with striatal activation when viewing pleasant images, but no other associations emerged. This would suggest that the basic measures of brain function in relation to the particular reward-related stimuli used might be of limited relevance to everyday affective experience and goal pursuit.

abstract: Multiple health-related benefits have been associated with adherence to plant-based diets, including vegan, vegetarian, and pescatarian dietary patterns. Despite a consistent body of evidence on the importance of healthy diets, Americans continue to find difficulty in establishing and adhering to dietary goals that could elicit long-term health benefits. Recent research suggests an important role for goal-setting strategies in health behavior change attempts, with some success shown in dietary behavior change, specifically. The current study thus aimed to explore whether having multiple goals alongside one primary goal of following a vegetarian, vegan, or pescatarian diet would increase the achievability of that goal. Participants of this study were broken into two groups: currently following a plant-based diet (ADHERE) and striving to follow a plant-based diet (STRIVE). Researchers hypothesized that the number of health and/or diet related alternative goals set by participants would differ between the two groups, that the ADHERE group would report that their alternative goals were more helpful and less interfering in achieving their dietary goal than the STRIVE group, and that a higher rank of importance of the dietary goal would predict being in the ADHERE group. Results showed that the number of health and/or diet related alternative goals did not differ between groups. The ADHERE group and STRIVE group did not have significantly different helpfulness and interference reports. Although, in an exploratory analysis, it was shown that those participants who reported at least 2 health/diet related alternative goals found those goals to be significantly more helpful than those who reported 0 or 1 health/diet goal. Results showed that rank of dietary goal did not predict group assignment. Overall, the results from this study showed that the type of alternative goal was very important when pursuit of multiple goals was in effect. Type of alternative goal seemed to be a higher predictor of the perceived helpfulness of the alternative goals than previous achievement of goals. / Dissertation/Thesis / Masters Thesis Nutrition 2018

abstract: The present study focused on those who had recently been involved in a romantic relationship that ended in a breakup. Data was collected from 326 participants using an online questionnaire. Participants were asked questions about goal linking, rumination, self-efficacy, Facebook ORI behaviors, and emotional response questions. The results indicated that there were two types of Facebook ORI behaviors: explicit and covert. Explicit ORI was predicted by self-efficacy among those whose partner ended the relationship, as well as goal linking when the breakup was self-initiated. Covert ORI was predicted by rumination across all levels of breakup initiator (self, partner, or mutual). Moreover, only general negative emotions predicted Covert ORI, but general negative emotion and positive emotion predicted Explicit ORI. Finally, the results showed that those who were broken up with engaged in more Covert ORI behaviors than those who ended the relationship themselves or who mutually ended the relationship. These results suggest that Relational Goal Pursuit theory, which is commonly used to explain ORI behavior, be reconceptualized. / Dissertation/Thesis / Ph.D. Communication Studies 2014

Metas de processo decisório (e.g., maximizar a precisão ou minimizar o esforço em uma escolha) determinam o número de opções consideradas antes de uma compra. Quatro experimentos são utilizados como evidência para mostrar que a relação entre as metas de benefício influencia na execução de metas de processo decisório. Quando metas de benefício estão em conflito (e.g., comprar um carro de prestígio, mas barato), torna-se mais difícil de se executar metas de processos decisórios. Consequentemente, a busca de informações termina antes (depois) quando uma pessoa está tentando maximizar a precisão (minimizar o esforço) em uma decisão. Quando metas de benefício são complementares (e.g., comprar um carro de prestígio e divertido), torna-se mais fácil de se executar metas de processo. Consequentemente, a busca de informações termina depois quando uma pessoa está tentando maximizar a precisão de uma decisão, mas não há efeito na execução da meta de minimização de esforço devido a um efeito de piso. Esses efeitos implicam que metas de processo decisório são possuídas com a utilização de meios de processo decisório (e.g., atividades de avaliação e de comparação) que podem se tornar menos ou mais eficazes na medida em que a busca de informações continua. / Decision process goals (e.g., maximize accuracy, minimize effort) determine de number of options considered prior to making a purchase. Four experiments are used to provide evidence that the relationship between benefit goals influences the execution of decision process goals. When benefit goals are in conflict (e.g., purchase a prestigious, thrifty car), it becomes more difficult to pursue a decision process goal. Consequently, search ends earlier (later) when a person is trying to maximize accuracy (minimize effort). When benefit goals are complementary (i.e., purchase a prestigious, fun car), it becomes easier to pursue a decision process goal. Consequently, search ends later when a person is trying to maximize accuracy, but there is no effect on the execution of the minimize effort goal due to a floor effect. These effects imply that decision process goals are pursued using decision process means (e.g., evaluative activities, comparison activities) that can become more or less efficacious as search proceeds.