Na última década métodos sintáticos vêm sendo bastante empregados para reconhecimento de padrões em imagens. Uma revisão sistemática sobre o assunto indicou que há trabalhos sobre a utilização de gramáticas para reconhecimento de objetos específicos em imagens, reconhecimento de texturas, construção de objetos, segmentação de imagens, mudança de escala de imagens e reconhecimento de layouts de páginas e documentos. Foi percebido que apenas alguns dos trabalhos analisados apresentavam métodos de inferência gramatical. Percebida essa lacuna, este trabalho teve como objetivo avaliar a utilização de gramáticas estocásticas inferidas a partir de amostras de treinamento que continham as estruturas de quadtrees das imagens no problema de classificação de imagens. Para atingir tal objetivo foram utilizados e adaptados dois algoritmos de inferência gramatical e um algoritmo de estimação de probabilidades responsável por transformar as gramáticas livres de contexto inferidas em gramáticas livres de contexto estocásticas. Os resultados obtidos mostram que as técnicas propostas podem ser utilizadas na classificação de figuras geométricas. Entretanto, embora o desempenho com quadtrees não tenha sido excelente, ficou claro que o uso de gramáticas pode ser uma abordagem interessante para a classificação de imagens. / In the last decade syntactic methods have been widely used for pattern recognition in images. A systematic review on this subject indicated that there are works about the usage of grammars for recognizing specific objects in images, recognition of textures, construction of objects, image segmentation, image scaling, and recognition of layouts in documents. It was noticed that only some of the analyzed studies showed methods of grammatical inference. Perceived this gap, this study aimed to evaluate the usage of stochastic grammars inferred from training samples containing structures of quadtrees of images in image classification problem. To achieve this goal it was used and adapted two algorithms for grammatical inference and one algorithm of probability estimation responsible for transforming the inferred context-free grammars in stochastic context-free grammars. The results show that the proposed techniques can be used in the classification of geometric figures. However, although the performance with quadtrees has not been excellent, it was clear that the use of grammars can be an interesting approach for image classification.

Die folgende Dissertation, die im Mai 2016 verteidigt wurde, beschäftigt sich mit sprachlichen Manifestationen von Genderkonzeptualisierungen im aktuellen schriftlichen Sprachgebrauch in Kroatien. Die Bedeutung von Genderzuschreibungen für die Benennung von Menschen wird sowohl aus synchroner als auch aus diachroner Perspektive auf Sprache betrachtet und analysiert. Das Material dieser Studie besteht neben sprachlichen und präskriptiven Quellen aus Tageszeitungen und linguistischem Material aus der kroatischen feministisch-queeren Gemeinschaft auch aus den Ergebnissen einer umfassenden Perzeptionsstudie und Expert*inneninterviews. Die Arbeit befasst sich mit drei zentralen Fragen: 1. Wie beeinflussen soziale Gendervorstellungen Fragen linguistischer Standardisierungsprozesse und wie werden diese Vorstellungen zudem in dominante Diskurse über Korrektheit im Sprachgebrauch eingeschrieben? 2. Welche Wirkung auf Genderkonzeptionen haben Sprachnormen im Bereich der personalen Appellation und welche kognitive Wirkung haben alternative Benennungsformen? 3. Welche Bedeutung haben Fragen des geschlechtergerechten Sprachgebrauchs bei politischen und aktivistischen Bemühungen von Genderexpert*innen in Kroatien und welche Strategien verwenden kroatische Genderexpert*innen, um eine diskriminierende Sprachnutzung zu vermeiden? / This dissertation thesis, which was defended in May 2016, deals with linguistic manifestations of gender conceptualizations in current written language usage in Croatia. The importance of gender for the linguistic naming of people is considered and analyzed from both a synchronic and a diachronic perspective on language. In addition to linguistic and prescriptive sources, the material of this study consists of daily newspapers and material from the Croatian feminist-queer community as well as oft he results of a perception study and expert inteviews. The thesis deals with three central questions: 1. How do social gender conceptions influence questions of linguistic standardization processes and how are these conceptions inscribed in dominant discourses about correctness in language use? 2. What effect do linguistic norms have on gendered conceptions of people and what is the cognitive effect of alternative naming practices? 3. What meaning is allocated to questions of gender-fair language use in political and activist efforts of gender experts in Croatia and what strategies do Croatian gender experts use to avoid discriminatory language use?

Esta pesquisa teve por objetivo investigar a realização do objeto pronominal acusativo de 3ª pessoa nas variedades de espanhol de Madri e Montevidéu, comparar as tendências encontradas com o português brasileiro e tecer uma interpretação teórica para essas construções, tendo em vista os desenvolvimentos minimalistas (CHOMSKY, 1999, 2000, 2001, 2004). Analisamos entrevistas orais das variedades de espanhol de Madri (CESTERO MANCERA et al., 2012) e Montevidéu (ELIZAINCÍN, s/d), pertencentes ao PRESEEA. Como referencial teórico, aliamos, portanto, a concepção biológica de língua e gramática (CHOMSKY, 1981, 1986, 1999) a aspectos sociolinguísticos (LABOV, 2008; WEINREICH; LABOV; HERZOG, 2009). O espanhol seria uma língua na qual os antecedentes [+específicos] deveriam ser retomados por um clítico, enquanto os objetos nulos se restringiriam a antecedentes [-específicos; -definidos] (CAMPOS, 1986a, b; FERNÁNDEZ SORIANO, 1999). Conforme Groppi (1997), a variedade de espanhol de Montevidéu seguiria essa mesma tendência. Considerando-se esses estudos, partimos da hipótese de que nas variedades de espanhol investigadas os objetos nulos estariam restringidos a antecedentes [-determinados; -específicos]. Contudo, os resultados encontrados contrariaram parcialmente nossa hipótese, já que observamos a omissão do objeto não apenas com antecedentes [-determinados; -específicos], como também algumas ocorrências com antecedentes [+determinados; +/- específicos] e, inclusive, [+animados]. Encontramos indícios de que o objeto nulo nessas variedades de espanhol teria uma natureza pronominal, sendo, portanto, um pro. Além disso, observamos que os objetos nulos ocorreram em construções que favoreceriam o apagamento do objeto tanto em outras variedades de espanhol (LANDA, 1993, 1995; FERNÁNDEZ ORDÓÑEZ, 1999; SUÑER; YÉPEZ, 1988) quanto no português brasileiro (CASAGRANDE, 2012; DUARTE, 1986). Por um lado, as construções que apresentam um clítico no espanhol ou um pronome lexical no português brasileiro envolveriam a operação de movimento e esses pronomes seriam a manifestação visível da concordância de objeto. Por outro lado, as construções que apresentam um objeto nulo envolveriam apenas a operação de concordância e seriam os traços- de pro que possibilitariam a identificação do objeto. Nessas construções, teríamos uma concordância de objeto que se manifesta de uma forma não visível, mediante um elemento pronominal sem traços fonéticos. / The aim of this research is to investigate the 3rd person accusative pronominal object occurrence in the Spanish varieties of Madrid and Montevideo, to compare the tendencies that were found to Brazilian Portuguese and to propose a theoretical interpretation to these constructions, based on minimalist developments (CHOMSKY, 1999, 2000, 2001, 2004). For that purpose, oral interviews of the varieties of Madrid (CESTERO MANCERA et al., 2012) and Montevideo (ELIZAINCÍN, s/d), taken from PRESEEA, were analysed. Thereby, regarding the theoretical approach, the biological conception of language and grammar (CHOMSKY, 1981, 1986, 1999) and some sociolinguist aspects (LABOV, 2008; WEINREICH; LABOV; HERZOG, 2009) were combined. In Spanish, [+specific] antecedents should be expressed by a clitic, while null objects would be restricted to [-specific; -definite] antecedents (CAMPOS, 1986a, b; FERNÁNDEZ SORIANO, 1999). According to Groppi (1997), the Spanish variety of Montevideo presents the same tendency. Considering these studies, our first hypothesis was that in the Spanish varieties analyzed the null objects would be restricted to [-determined; -specific] antecedents. However, the results contradicted partially our hypothesis, since it was observed that the omission of the object not only occurred when the antecedent was [-determined; -specific], but also when the antecedent was [+determined; +/-specific] and, in addition, [+animate]. We found evidence that the null object in these Spanish varieties would have a pronominal nature, and, consequently, it would be a pro. Furthermore, the null objects appeared in constructions that allow the object ellipsis both in other Spanish varieties (LANDA, 1993, 1995; FERNÁNDEZ ORDÓÑEZ, 1999; SUÑER; YÉPEZ, 1988) and in Brazilian Portuguese (CASAGRANDE, 2012; DUARTE, 1986). On the one hand, constructions that present a clitic in Spanish or a lexical pronoun in Brazilian Portuguese would involve Move and correspond to a visible object agreement. On the other hand, constructions that present a null object would involve only Agree and the -features would be related to the object identification. In these constructions, the object agreement happens in a non visible form, through a pronominal element without phonetic features.

Fatores de transcrição (FT) são proteínas que se ligam em sequências específicas e bem conservadas de nucleotídeos no DNA, denominadas sítios de ligação dos fatores de transcrição (SLFT), localizadas em regiões de regulação gênica conhecidas como módulos cis-reguladores (CRM). Ao reconhecer o SLFT, o fator de transcrição se liga naquele sítio e influencia a transcrição gênica positiva ou negativamente. Existem técnicas experimentais para a identificação dos locais dos SLFTs em um genoma, como footprinting, ChIP-chip ou ChIP-seq. Entretanto, a execução de tais técnicas implica em custos e tempo elevados. Alternativamente, pode-se utilizar as sequências de SLFTs já conhecidas para um determinado fator de transcrição e aplicar técnicas de aprendizado computacional supervisionado para criar um modelo computacional para tal sítio e então realizar a predição computacional no genoma. Entretanto, a maioria das ferramentas computacionais existentes para esse fim considera independência entre as posições entre os nucleotídeos de um sítio - como as baseadas em PWMs (position weight matrix) - o que não é necessariamente verdade. Este projeto teve como objetivo avaliar a utilização de gramáticas regulares estocásticas (GRE) como técnica alternativa às PWMs neste problema, uma vez que GREs são capazes de caracterizar dependências entre posições consecutivas dos sítios. Embora as diferenças de desempenho tenham sido sutis, GREs parecem mesmo ser mais adequadas do que PWMs na presença de valores mais altos de dependência de bases, e PWMs nos demais casos. Por fim, uma ferramenta de predição computacional de SLFTs foi criada baseada tanto em GREs quanto em PWMs. / Transcription factors (FT) are proteins that bind to specific and well-conserved sequences of nucleotides in the DNA, called transcription factor binding sites (TFBS), contained in regions of gene regulation known as cis-regulatory modules (CRM). By recognizing TFBA, the transcription factor binds to that site and positively or negatively influence the gene transcription. There are experimental procedures for the identification of TFBS in a genome such as footprinting, ChIP-chip or ChIP-Seq. However, the implementation of these techniques involves high costs and time. Alternatively, one may utilize the TFBS sequences already known for a particular transcription factor and applying computational supervised learning techniques to create a computational model for that site and then perform the computational prediction in the genome. However, most existing software tools for this purpose considers independence between nucleotide positions in the site - such as those based on PWMs (position weight matrix) - which is not necessarily true. This project aimed to evaluate the use of stochastic regular grammars (SRG) as an alternative technique to PWMs in this problem, since SRGs are able to characterize dependencies between consecutive positions in the sites. Although differences in performance have been subtle, SRGs appear to be more suitable than PWMs in the presence of higher base dependency values, and PWMs in other cases. Finally, a computational TFBS prediction tool was created based on both SRGs and PWMs.

A implementação da Nomenclatura Gramatical Brasileira (NGB) em 1959 e a assunção da Linguística no Brasil na década de 60 são acontecimentos que provocaram profundas mudanças no fazer gramatical. A NGB, enquanto acontecimento discursivo, ao evidenciar determinados termos e silenciar outros, reestrutura a memória do discurso gramatical brasileiro, regulando a relação do sujeito com o dizível e instaurando uma nova formação discursiva dominante, a qual se sobrepôs às formações discursivas anteriores. No presente trabalho, partimos do pressuposto de que, apesar do efeito da censura imposta pela terminologia oficial, o discurso gramatical produzido após a sua instituição é constitutivamente da ordem do heterogêneo. Assim sendo, com base no aporte teórico da Análise de Discurso de Pêcheux e Orlandi e nos estudos do projeto História das Ideias Linguísticas, investigamos o funcionamento do discurso legitimado pela NGB nas gramáticas cuja publicação a sucederam, mais especificamente em sete gramáticas publicadas entre 1959 e 1969. Interessa-nos, portanto, com vistas a depreender a forma como se materializa a tensão entre os sentidos oficiais e os sentidos censurados, desnaturalizar o processo de (re)significação dos termos acolhidos pela NGB, depreendendo, assim, como os sentidos silenciados se fizeram significar na materialidade linguística das gramáticas / The Implementation of Brazilian Grammatical Nomenclature (NGB) in 1959 and the assumption of science Linguistics in Brazil in the 60 are events that caused profound changes to the grammar. The NGB as a discursive event, highlighting certain terms and silencing others, restructured the memory of Brazilian speech grammar, regulating the relationship between subject and utterable and establishing a new dominant discursive formation, which overlapped the previous discursive formations. In this paper, we assume that, despite the effect of the censure imposed by the official terminology, the grammatical discourse produced after its establishment is constitutively of the order of the heterogeneous. Therefore, based on the Theoretical Analysis of Discourse of Pêcheux Orlandi and on studies about project História das Ideias Linguísticas (Linguistic History of Ideas), we investigated the functioning of discourse legitimized by NGB in grammars which followed publication, specifically in seven grammars published between 1959 and 1969. Then we are interested in, in order to show the embodiment of the tension between the senses and the senses official censored, deconstruct the process of (re) signification of the terms accepted by the NGB, deducing, how the silenced senses got a meaning by themselves in the linguistic materiality of the grammars

Na última década métodos sintáticos vêm sendo bastante empregados para reconhecimento de padrões em imagens. Uma revisão sistemática sobre o assunto indicou que há trabalhos sobre a utilização de gramáticas para reconhecimento de objetos específicos em imagens, reconhecimento de texturas, construção de objetos, segmentação de imagens, mudança de escala de imagens e reconhecimento de layouts de páginas e documentos. Foi percebido que apenas alguns dos trabalhos analisados apresentavam métodos de inferência gramatical. Percebida essa lacuna, este trabalho teve como objetivo avaliar a utilização de gramáticas estocásticas inferidas a partir de amostras de treinamento que continham as estruturas de quadtrees das imagens no problema de classificação de imagens. Para atingir tal objetivo foram utilizados e adaptados dois algoritmos de inferência gramatical e um algoritmo de estimação de probabilidades responsável por transformar as gramáticas livres de contexto inferidas em gramáticas livres de contexto estocásticas. Os resultados obtidos mostram que as técnicas propostas podem ser utilizadas na classificação de figuras geométricas. Entretanto, embora o desempenho com quadtrees não tenha sido excelente, ficou claro que o uso de gramáticas pode ser uma abordagem interessante para a classificação de imagens. / In the last decade syntactic methods have been widely used for pattern recognition in images. A systematic review on this subject indicated that there are works about the usage of grammars for recognizing specific objects in images, recognition of textures, construction of objects, image segmentation, image scaling, and recognition of layouts in documents. It was noticed that only some of the analyzed studies showed methods of grammatical inference. Perceived this gap, this study aimed to evaluate the usage of stochastic grammars inferred from training samples containing structures of quadtrees of images in image classification problem. To achieve this goal it was used and adapted two algorithms for grammatical inference and one algorithm of probability estimation responsible for transforming the inferred context-free grammars in stochastic context-free grammars. The results show that the proposed techniques can be used in the classification of geometric figures. However, although the performance with quadtrees has not been excellent, it was clear that the use of grammars can be an interesting approach for image classification.

Η παρούσα εργασία διερευνά την αντιληπτικότητα δύο κατηγοριών διμελών συμφωνικών συμπλεγμάτων του τύπου [φρακτικό + φρακτικό] και [φρακτικό + υγρό] σε αρχικές και ενδιάμεσες, τονισμένες ή άτονες συλλαβές λέξεων της ελληνικής από 26 πληροφορητές, φυσικούς και αλλόγλωσσους (με μητρική γλώσσα την αλβανική και βουλγαρική) ομιλητές της ΚΝΕ. Η εκτεταμένη ποικιλία που χαρακτηρίζει τα εμπειρικά δεδομένα συντελεί στην υιοθέτηση της Θεωρίας του Βέλτιστου σε συνδυασμό με το μοντέλο των Πολλαπλών Παράλληλων Γραμματικών. Μετά την ολοκλήρωση της πειραματικής διαδικασίας κατέστη εμφανές ότι το σύστημα της εκάστοτε μητρικής γλώσσας των αλλόγλωσσων ασκεί επιρροή στην επίτευξη του υψηλότερου δυνατού επιπέδου γλωσσομάθειας της ΚΝΕ είτε ως μητρικής - στην περίπτωση των δίγλωσσων ομιλητών - είτε ως δεύτερης / ξένης γλώσσας. / This paper examines the perception of two-member [obstruent + obstruent] and [obstruent + liquid] consonant clusters in word-initial and word-medial, stressed or non stressed syllables in Modern Greek words by 26 informants, native speakers and Albanian and Bulgarian [as L1] speakers of Greek. Due to the extensive variation of the experimental data we use the frame work of Optimality Theory in combination with the model of Multiple Parallel Grammars. At the end of the experimental process it became obvious that the phonological system of L1 influences the acquisition or learning at the highest possible level (that of an adult native speaker) of Greek either as L1 – in the case of bilingual speakers - either as L2, second / foreign language learning.

The formalized and algorithmic study of human language within the field of Natural Language Processing (NLP) has motivated much theoretical work in the related field of formal languages, in particular the subfields of grammar and automata theory. Motivated and informed by NLP, the papers in this thesis explore the connections between expressibility – that is, the ability for a formal system to define complex sets of objects – and algorithmic complexity – that is, the varying amount of effort required to analyse and utilise such systems. Our research studies formal systems working not just on strings, but on more complex structures such as trees and graphs, in particular syntax trees and semantic graphs. The field of mildly context-sensitive languages concerns attempts to find a useful class of formal languages between the context-free and context-sensitive. We study formalisms defining two candidates for this class; tree-adjoining languages and the languages defined by linear context-free rewriting systems. For the former, we specifically investigate the tree languages, and define a subclass and tree automaton with linear parsing complexity. For the latter, we use the framework of parameterized complexity theory to investigate more deeply the related parsing problems, as well as the connections between various formalisms defining the class. The field of semantic modelling aims towards formally and accurately modelling not only the syntax of natural language statements, but also the meaning. In particular, recent work in semantic graphs motivates our study of graph grammars and graph parsing. To the best of our knowledge, the formalism presented in Paper III of this thesis is the first graph grammar where the uniform parsing problem has polynomial parsing complexity, even for input graphs of unbounded node degree.

This diploma thesis deals with grammatical structures expressing future, which are presented in series of English language textbooks. This thesis is divided into two parts a theoretical and an empirical one. Emphasis is given on the empirical part. There is defined grammar and particular types of grammar are also described in theoretical part. There is focus especially on the linguistic and pedagogical grammar. Particular attention is paid to the conception of grammatical structures expressing future which is presented in the linguistic and pedagogical grammars. This part functions as theoretical basis for empirical part. The objective of the empirical part is to present research of chosen series of English language textbooks. The heart of the empirical part comprises an in-depth analysis and comparative study of grammatical structures expressing future which are presented in chosen series of English language textbooks. The aim of the analysis and comparison is to find out, which grammatical structures expressing future are presented in the series, what order they are presented in, what thematic context they are presented in, if there is paid attention to typical mistakes in these structures in the series, if the conception of grammatical structures expressing future which is presented in the linguistic grammars matches the presentation of these structures in the series. The aim is also to find out whether there are presented the same grammatical structures expressing future in similar orders and analogous thematic contexts in the chosen series of textbooks.

Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / This study examines the phenomenon of consumerism. He has been described as a historical phenomenon that has engaged people through the consumption practices of different ways. Thus, they mainly concern the use of consumer goods as a strategy of political intervention. In this sense, nowadays, consumerism is understood as a heterogeneous and multifaceted phenomenon that is used to materialize moral conceptions and worldviews from critical positions in relation to consumption. Thus, the goal of this dissertation is to investigate this phenomenon in the context of southern Brazil, based on the alternative consumption practices developed within the solidarity economy. So the problem that guides this study is: beyond rationality characterized by self-interest that seeks to maximize gains and minimize losses, what presides agents' choices in alternative markets? The construction of this research problem is theoretically informed by the pragmatic sociology of L. Boltanski and L. Thévenot. Thus, from these theoretical assumptions this study also questions: to what extent should we understand the critical consumption, consumerism or at a trade show solidarity economy as a grammar governed by moral values such as care, authenticity and solidarity. Based on field research carried out at the show solidarity economy of Santa Maria was possible to identify the composition of three ethics that justify and sustain the consumption practices developed in this environment, namely: the ethics of care, the ethics of authenticity and the ethics of solidarity. The choice of this fair as an object of analysis is due to the fact that this initiative proposing an alternative model of consumption, consumption called solidarity. Regarding methodological procedures the study is based on a qualitative approach, making use of techniques of participant observation and semi-structured interviews conducted with consumers at the fair, as well as analyzes of materials and brochures for dissemination of proposals around the consumption solidarity. Data were analyzed using the technique of content analysis with categorical type (not a priori). / O presente estudo aborda o fenômeno do consumerismo. Ele tem sido descrito como um fenômeno histórico que tem engajado pessoas através das práticas de consumo de diferentes maneiras. Assim, elas dizem respeito principalmente à utilização dos bens de consumo como estratégia de intervenção política. Neste sentido, na atualidade o consumerismo é compreendido como um fenômeno heterogêneo e multifacetado que é utilizado para materializar concepções morais e visões de mundo a partir de posições críticas em relação ao consumo. Deste modo, o objetivo desta dissertação é investigar este fenômeno no contexto do sul do Brasil, tendo por base as práticas de consumo alternativo desenvolvidas no âmbito da economia solidária. O problema que norteia o presente estudo é o seguinte: para além de uma racionalidade caracterizada pelo puro interesse que busca maximizar ganhos e minimizar perdas, o quê preside as escolhas dos agentes em mercados alternativos? A construção deste problema de pesquisa é informada teoricamente pela sociologia pragmática de L. Boltanski e L. Thévenot. Desta forma, partindo destes pressupostos teóricos este estudo também questiona: em que medida poderíamos compreender o consumo crítico, ou consumerismo em uma feira de economia solidária, como uma gramática moral governada por valores tais como cuidado, autenticidade e solidariedade. Com base na pesquisa de campo desenvolvida na feira de economia solidária de Santa Maria foi possível identificar a composição de três éticas que justificam e dão sustentação às práticas de consumo desenvolvidas neste ambiente, a saber: a ética do cuidado; a ética da autenticidade e a ética da solidariedade. A escolha desta feira como objeto de análise deve-se ao fato de esta iniciativa propor um modelo de consumo alternativo, chamado de consumo solidário. Em relação aos procedimentos metodológicos o estudo se baseia na abordagem qualitativa, se utilizando de técnicas da observação participante e entrevistas semi-estruturadas realizadas com os consumidores da feira, bem como análises dos materiais e cartilhas de divulgação das propostas em torno do consumo solidário. Os dados foram analisados a partir da técnica de análise de conteúdo de tipo categorial (não apriorística).