Landnutzungsänderungen, Habitatverlust und Fragmentierung gehören zu den Hauptursachen des weltweiten Biodiversitätsrückgangs. In Mitteleuropa zählen Kalkmagerrasen zu den artenreichsten Lebensräumen. Sie weisen eine hohe Vielfalt an xero- und thermophilen Pflanzen- und Invertebratenarten auf, sind jedoch zunehmend durch landwirtschaftliche Intensivierung und Nutzungsaufgabe gefährdet. Sie sind auf Beweidung und Mahd angewiesen, was jedoch für die Landwirte heutzutage unwirtschaftlich geworden ist. Daher finden sich zunehmend kleine Fragmente innerhalb einer für die meisten der spezialisierten Magerrasenarten ungeeigneten, von intensiver Landwirtschaft geprägten Umgebung. Der erste Teil dieser Arbeit untersucht den Einfluss der Fragmentgröße, der Habitatkonnektivität, der Zusammensetzung der umgebenden Landschaft und der Pflanzenartenzahl auf die Zusammensetzung der Zikadengemeinschaft. Zikaden sind eine überaus artenreiche Gruppe phytophager Insekten mit enger Bindung an die Vegetationsstruktur und -zusammensetzung. In der Umgebung von Göttingen wählten wir 14 große (>1 ha) und 14 kleine (<1 ha) Kalkmagerrasenflächen entlang von Gradienten zunehmender Konnektivität mit anderen Magerrasenflächen, zunehmender Pflanzenartenzahl und zunehmender Landschaftskomplexität, d.h. dem Prozentsatz Ackerfläche innerhalb eines 500 m-Radius, aus. Zunehmende Isolation verringerte die Zikadenartenzahl in einfachen (von Feldern geprägten), jedoch nicht in komplexen Landschaften. Dieser Effekt wurde von den Generalisten getrieben. Die Artenzahl der Generalisten nahm auf kleinen Fragmenten mit zunehmender Konnektivität zu, wogegen sie auf großen Flächen unverändert blieb. Weiterhin nahm die Artenzahl der Generalisten mit steigender Pflanzenartenzahl auf vernetzten Magerrasen stärker zu als auf unvernetzten. Unsere Ergebnisse zeigen, dass die Insektenartenvielfalt auf Kalkmagerrasenfragmenten nicht nur durch Konnektivität allein geprägt wird, sondern vielmehr von einem Zusammenspiel aus Konnektivität, Landschaftszusammensetzung und Pflanzenartenzahl bestimmt wird. Im zweiten Teil dieser Arbeit verfolgen wir das Ziel, zur Lösung der sogenannten SLOSS-Debatte (“Single Large Or Several Small”) beizutragen, in der diskutiert wird, ob es besser ist, wenige große oder mehrere kleine Fragmente eines Habitattyps zu erhalten. Man nimmt an, dass kleine Fragmente aufgrund der größeren abgedeckten geographischen Distanzen eine größere Heterogenität und dadurch eine höhere Gesamtartenzahl aufweisen. Dagegen weisen große Fragmente stabilere Lebensraumbedingungen und größere Populationen auf. Neben Zikaden und Pflanzen wurden auch Daten zu Wanzen und 114 Schnecken aufgenommen. Sowohl die Gesamtartenzahl aller vier Taxa als auch die Zahl der Spezialisten war auf mehreren kleinen Fragmenten wesentlich höher als auf einem oder zwei großen Fragmenten gleicher Gesamtgröße. Jedoch war die Artenzusammensetzung auf großen und kleinen Fragmenten unterschiedlich und einige der seltensten Spezialisten waren an große Flächen gebunden. Hingegen spielte die Zusammensetzung der umgebenden Landschaft keine wichtige Rolle für Artenzahl und -zusammensetzung. Diese Ergebnisse stellen den Fokus auf entweder große oder kleine Habitatfragmente infrage. Für einen erfolgreichen Biodiversitätserhalt ist daher der Schutz sowohl großer als auch kleiner Habitatfragmente zwingend notwendig. Im dritten Teil dieser Arbeit untersuchen wir den Einfluss der Bewirtschaftungsart (Beweidung, Mahd, Nutzungsaufgabe), der Landschaftszusammensetzung und Konnektivität auf die Artenzahl, Artenzusammensetzung und merkmalsbasierte Reaktionen (Körpergröße und Rote Liste-Status) von neun Taxa: Pflanzen, Schmetterlinge, Bienen, Heuschrecken, Schwebfliegen, Spinnen, Wanzen, Kurzflügler und Zikaden. Wir wählten 30 kleine Kalkmagerrasenfragmente (<1 ha) entlang von unabhängigen Konnektivitäts- und Landschaftskomplexitätsgradienten aus. Ein zunehmender Prozentsatz an Ackerfläche in der Umgebung der Fragmente führte zu einem Verlust von 29 % der Gesamtartenzahl. Wir nehmen an, dass Landschaften, die von Ackerfläche dominiert werden, weniger Alternativhabitat und Nahrungsressourcen bieten, was zu einer verringerten Artenzahl führt. Habitatkonnektivität erhöhte im Allgemeinen die Artenzahl. Dieser Effekt war bei den großen, vermutlich ausbreitungsfähigeren Arten eines Taxons stärker ausgeprägt als bei den kleinen Arten. Beweidung hatte einen deutlich negativeren Einfluss auf die Artenzahl als Mahd (einmal jährlich) oder kurzzeitige Nutzungsaufgabe (5-15 Jahre). Der Grund dafür könnte der durch Beweidung verursachte größere Schaden und die Entnahme der Nahrungsressourcen phytophager Insekten sein. Zudem führte jeder der drei Bewirtschaftungsweisen zu einer unterschiedlichen Artenzusammensetzung aller Taxa. Daher sollte die bevorzugte Bewirtschaftungsoption kleiner Kalkmagerrasenfragmente ein Wechsel zwischen Mahd und kurzzeitiger Nutzungsaufgabe in Kombination mit einer Diversifizierung der umgebenden Landschaft sein. Zusammenfassend lässt sich sagen, dass die allgemein verbreitete Konzentration auf große Habitatfragmente überdacht werden sollte, da der Schutz sowohl kleiner als auch großer Fragmente unerlässlich ist. Bei der Planung von Schutzmaßnahmen für fragmentierte Offenlandlebensräume sind lokale Einflüsse wie Fragmentgröße und Bewirtschaftung zwar wichtig, aber nicht ausreichend: Landschaftsfaktoren wie Habitatkonnektivität und Landschaftszusammensetzung müssen ebenfalls in die Schutzbemühungen mit einbezogen werden um das langfristige Überleben von spezialisierten Pflanzen- und Invertebratenarten zu sichern.

The complex co-evolutionary systems approach (CCeSA) provides a well-suited framework for analysing agricultural systems, serving as a bridge between biophysical and socioeconomic sciences, allowing for the explanation of phenomena, and for the use of metaphors for thinking and action. By studying agricultural systems as self-generated, hierarchical, complex co-evolutionary farming systems (CCeFSs), one can investigate the interconnections between the elements that constitute CCeFSs, along with the relationships between CCeFSs and other systems, as a fundamental step to understanding sustainability as an emergent property of the system. CCeFSs are defined as human activity systems emerging from the purposes, gestalt, mental models, history and weltanschauung of the farm manager, and from his dynamic co-evolution with the environment while managing the resources at his hand to achieve his own multiple, conflicting, dynamic, semi-structured and constrained purposes. A sustainable CCeFS is described as one that exhibits both enough fitness to achieve its multiple, dynamic, constrained, semi-structured, and often incommensurable and conflicting purposes while performing above threshold values for failure, and enough flexibility to dynamically co-evolve with its changing biophysical and socioeconomic environment for a given future period. Fitness and flexibility are essential features of sustainable CCeFSs because they describe the systems' dynamic capacity to explore and exploit its dynamic phase space while co-evolving with it. This implies that a sustainable CCeFS is conceived as a set of dynamic, co-evolutionary processes, contrasting with the standard view of sustainability as an equilibrium or steady state. Achieving sustainable CCeFSs is a semi-structured, constrained, multi-objective, and dynamic optimisation management problem with an intractable search phase space, that can be solved within the CCeSA with the help of a multi-objective co-evolutionary optimisation tool. Carnico-ICSPEA2, a Co-Evolutionary Navigator (CoEvoNav) used as a CCeSA's tool for harnessing the complexity of the CCeFS of interest and its environment towards sustainability, is introduced. The software was designed by its end-user - the farm manager and author of this thesis - as an aid for the analysis and optimisation of the "San Francisco" ranch, a beef cattle enterprise running on temperate pastures and fodder crops in the central plateau of Mexico. By combining a non-linear simulator and a multi-objective evolutionary algorithm with a deterministic and stochastic framework, the CoEvoNav imitates the co-evolutionary pattern of the CCeFS of interest. As such, the software was used by the farm manager to "navigate" through his CCeFS's co-evolutionary phase space towards achieving sustainability at farm level. The ultimate goal was to enhance the farm manager's decision-making process and co-evolutionary skills, through an increased understanding of his system, the co-evolutionary process between his mental models, the CCeFS, and the CoEvoNav, and the continuous discovery of new, improved sets of heuristics. An overview of the methodological, theoretical and philosophical framework of the thesis is introduced. Also, a survey of the Mexican economy, its agricultural sector, and a statistical review of the Mexican beef industry are presented. Concepts such as modern agriculture, the reductionist approach to agricultural research, models, the system's environment, sustainability, conventional and sustainable agriculture, complexity, evolution, simulators, and multi-objective optimization tools are extensively reviewed. Issues concerning the impossibility of predicting the long-term, detailed future behaviour of CCeFSs, along with the use of simulators as decision support tools in the quest for sustainable CCeFSs, are discussed. The rationale behind the simulator used for this study, along with that of the multi-objective evolutionary tools used as the makeup of Carnico-ICSPEA2, are explained. A description of the "San Francisco" ranch, its key on-farm sustainability indicators in the form of objective functions, constraints, and decision variables, and the semi-structured, multi-objective, dynamic, constrained management problem posed by the farm manager's planned introduction of a herd of bulls for fattening as a way to increase the fitness of his CCeFS via a better management of the system's feed surpluses and the acquisition of a new pick-up truck are described as a case study. The tested scenario and the experimental design for the simulations are presented as well. Results from using the CoEvoNav as the farm manager's extended phenotype to solve his multi-objective optimisation problem are described, along with the implications for the management and sustainability of the CCeFS. Finally, the approach and tools developed are evaluated, and the progress made in relation to methodological, theoretical, philosophical and conceptual notions is reviewed along with some future topics for research.

In the years 2005-2006 it was practised the analysis of plant production and the evaluation of typological structure of selected grasslands in selected farming business. It were evaluated the gualitative indices of produced roughage. It were evaluated the area sof annual crops, multi-annual fodder crops and of permanent grasslands and the produce of fodder of fodder crops and the sort and categories of stock cattle.

Enquanto em regiões temperadas o conhecimento sobre a relação solo-vegetação é consolidado, nos trópicos e subtrópicos é preliminar. É urgente a necessidade de se determinar os fatores abióticos que controlam padrões vegetacionais visando dar suporte a estudos de recuperação e conservação. O presente estudo analisa a relação entre fatores abióticos e vegetação campestre na forma de três artigos científicos (capítulos I, II e III) e um artigo de revisão (capítulo IV). Nos primeiros três artigos, analisou-se a variância da vegetação em diferentes escalas ecológicas; e no artigo de revisão, discutiu-se de forma aplicada a variância de fatores bióticos e abióticos em resposta à degradação. Dessa forma, a presente tese objetivou responder as seguintes questões: (I) Que diferenças podem ser observadas dentro de uma mesma espécie quanto à funcionalidade e suas estratégias de alocação sob diferentes graus de disponibilidade de recursos?; (II) Quão variáveis são as propriedades físicas e químicas do solo em diferentes escalas espaciais; e existem propriedades dos solos que podem explicar com maior precisão a distribuição das espécies em diferentes escalas espaciais? (III) Que porcentagem de variância da vegetação pode ser explicada por propriedades pedológicas e climáticas; e quais características de solo e clima melhor explicam esses padrões de vegetação? No capítulo IV é apresentado um modelo conceitual sobre degradação dos campos e sua aplicação aos campos do Rio Grande do Sul (RS). Para responder as questões acima usei dados ao nível de espécie de campos calcáreos da Alemanha (capítulo I); dados ao nível de comunidade em seis áreas campestres do Rio Grande do Sul, sul do Brasil (capítulos II e III); e através da revisão de literatura relacionada à degradação, quanto à capacidade de recuperação dos campos do RS (capítulo IV). Os resultados evidenciaram que: (I) dentro de espécies ficaram evidentes duas estratégias frente à limitação de recursos, enquanto a resposta dos atributos aos diferentes tratamentos se mostrou constante; (II) a variação dos parâmetros do solo relaciona-se à escala espacial aplicada e a variância da vegetação geralmente responde a diferentes parâmetros de solo em diferentes escalas; (III) 45% da variância da vegetação entre biomas nos campos do RS foi explicada por características pedológicas e climáticas, sendo em grande parte governada pela precipitação anual e a porcentagem de saturação por alumínio do solo; e (IV) o modelo conceitual apresenta variações ao longo de dois eixos (biótico e abiótico) e poderá servir de suporte a estudos de conservação e recuperação de campos tropicais e suptropicais, bem como facilitar a tomada de decisões quanto ao manejo e conservação. Como conclusão geral, verificou-se que a vegetação campestre responde a variações ambientais em diferentes escalas espaciais e pode adotar diferentes estratégias para sobrepor filtros ambientais e processos de degradação. O entendimento da relação entre a vegetação e o meio abiótico é de grande importância para tomada de decisões quanto ao emprego de formas alternativas de manejo e conservação. / Whereas in temperate regions the abiotic-biotic relationship is well-known, in the tropics and subtropics our understanding is still preliminary. There is an urgent need to determine abiotic factors that control vegetation patterns in order to give support to restoration and conservation approaches. The present thesis analyses the relationship between abiotic factors and grassland vegetation in three original research papers (chapters I, II and III) and a review paper (chapter IV). In the first three papers, vegetation variance in response to abiotic factors was analyzed at different ecological scales; and in the fourth, the variance in biotic and abiotic factors in response to degradation process was discussed with a more applied view. Thus in this thesis the aim is to answer the following questions: (I) Which differences can be found in functional plant traits and allocation strategies within species at different levels of water and nutrient availability?; (II) How variable are physical and chemical parameters in different spatial scales; and are there soil parameters that can more accurately explain plant distribution in different spatial scales? (III) How much of RS grassland vegetation variance can be explained by soil and climatic properties; and which climatic and soil properties better explain these vegetation patterns? In chapter IV a conceptual model of grassland degradation is presented and applied to Rio Grande do Sul (RS) grasslands. To address these questions I used species-level data in a calcareous grassland in Germany (chapter I); community-level data in six sites in RS, South Brazilian grasslands (chapter II and III); and a review of literature studies concerning RS grassland degradation and restorability (chapter IV). The results showed that: (I) at a intraspecific level, the study species showed two allocation strategies in relation to resource stress, while the responses of individual traits to the soil treatments were consistent across species; (II) soil parameters variation are related to the measurement scale applied and the vegetation variance often responds to different soil parameters at different scales; (III) climatic and soil properties explained 45% of vegetation variance between biomes in RS grasslands and the main factors controlling its variance are annual precipitation and percent aluminum saturation; and (IV) the conceptual model is displayed as biotic and abiotic changes along the axes and can serve as a general framework to study degradation and restorability of tropical and subtropical grasslands, and further it may facilitate decisions on alternative management and conservation. As a general conclusion, the grassland vegetation responds to changes in the environment in different scales and may use different strategies to overcome environmental selective forces and degradation process. The understanding of this relationship is of high importance to facilitate decisions on alternative management and conservation.

Uma questão que ainda instiga discussões na literatura ecológica é como explicar a coocorrência dinâmica e milenar de formações florestais e campestres sob um mesmo regime climático que tende a favorecer as primeiras, como ocorre atualmente com mosaicos florestacampo no sul do Brasil. A partir de meados do século XX, têm-se evidenciado um fenômeno mundial de avanço de elementos lenhosos sobre áreas abertas. Neste sentido, a modelagem dos processos ecológicos envolvidos na manutenção de ambas as formações numa escala de paisagem permite o esclarecimento dos mecanismos que atuam na manutenção dessa coexistência até o presente e permite prever estados futuros diante dos prognósticos de drásticas alterações climáticas globais já nas próximas décadas. Para tanto, desenvolveu-se um modelo espacialmente explícito (2D-aDGVM) que agrega um Modelo Adaptativo Global de Dinâmica de Vegetação (aDGVM) e ainda inclui heterogeneidades topográficas, propagação do fogo e dispersão de sementes. Este modelo busca satisfazer a necessidade de modelagem mais realista de processos biofísicos, fisiológicos e demográficos na escala de indivíduos e relacionados de forma adaptativa às variações ambientais e aos regimes de distúrbios, ao mesmo tempo que agrega importantes processos ecológicos espaciais, até então pouco ou nada abordados por esse grupo de modelos numa escala de paisagem. Com este modelo, avaliaram-se os efeitos das variações topográficas da radiação solar incidente e destas nos mecanismos de interação (feedbacks) positiva e negativa que surgem daqueles processos na escala de indivíduos e que definem localmente os limites da coexistência entre elementos arbóreos e herbáceos. Ainda, foram analisados os efeitos do aumento da temperatura, precipitação e CO2 atmosférico, desde o período pré-industrial até projeções futuras para as próximas décadas, na performance das diferentes fisiologias envolvidas, bem como no balanço daquelas interações entre as mesmas e, finalmente, na sensibilidade da dinâmica dos mosaicos floresta-campo. Os resultados evidenciaram que, sob o regime climático vigente, uma coexistência relativamente estável entre floresta e campo numa mesma paisagem é mantida por uma alta freqüência de distúrbios, que por sua vez, resulta do forte feedback positivo do acúmulo de biomassa inflamável da vegetação campestre na intensidade do fogo, proporcionado pela condição altamente produtiva do atual clima mesotérmico. Por outro lado, intensificadas pela declividade do terreno, as heterogeneidades espaciais afetaram o balanço dessas interações, interferindo nos padrões espaço-temporais relacionados ao comportamento do fogo e dependentes da densidade de elementos arbóreos. Ainda, tanto esses efeitos observados na escala das manchas de vegetação, como o arranjo espacial inicial das mesmas na paisagem, afetaram as taxas de expansão florestal. Em outras palavras, a manutenção da coexistência de duas formações vegetais constituídas por elementos de inerente assimetria competitiva é possível pela manutenção de uma maior conectividade daquela que propicia o distúrbio, superando a vantagem da outra, que por sua vez é dependente da densidade dos indivíduos. Numa escala de paisagem, isto causa a manutenção de uma baixa conectividade entre as manchas florestais, propiciando sua relativa estabilidade num contexto de dispersão predominante a curtas distâncias. Contudo, embora ambos os sistemas tenham apresentado incremento no crescimento, produtividade e fecundidade, observou-se uma sensibilidade maior no sentido de aumento das taxas de avanço florestal em resposta às projeções climáticas futuras, principalmente nos próximos 90 anos, mesmo na presença do fogo. Isto seria proporcionado pela vantagem fotossintética das árvores-C3 sobre gramíneas-C4 na presença do fogo sob altas concentrações de CO2 atmosférico. Por fim, uma abordagem mais sistêmica dos mosaicos como estados alternativos mostrou ser adequada para o entendimento dos mecanismos que propiciam essa coexistência dinâmica na paisagem. / A longstanding problem in ecology is how to explain the coexistence over thousands of years of forests and natural grasslands under the same climatic regime, which favors the first, such as in forest-grasslands mosaics in South Brazil. Since the middle of the 20th century, a worldwide bush encroachment phenomenon of woody invasion in open vegetation has been threatening this relatively stable coexistence. In this sense, modelling ecological processes that arbitrate the maintenance of both vegetation formations at the landscape scale allows a better understanding of the mechanisms behind the maintenance of this coexistence, as well as predictions of future states under projections of drastic climate change over the next decades. For this, we developed a bidimensional spatial explicit model (2D-aDGVM) that aggregates an adaptive Global Vegetation Model (aDGVM), which includes topographic heterogeneity, fire spread and seed dispersal. The model aims at fulfilling the need for a more realistic representation of biophysical, physiological and demographical processes using an individualbased approach as it adapts these processes to environmental variations and disturbance regimes. In addition, the model includes important spatial ecological processes that have gained less attention by such models adopting a landscape-scale approach. Therefore, we evaluated the effect of topographic variations in incoming solar radiation on positive and on negative feedbacks that rise from those individual-based processes, and which in turns define the limiting thresholds upon which woody and grassy forms coexist. Additionally, the effects of increasing temperature, rainfall and atmospheric CO2 levels on the performance of distinct physiologies (C3-tree and C4-grass) were analyzed, as well as the sensitivity of forestgrassland mosaics to changes in climate from the preindustrial period to the next decades. Results showed that a relatively stable coexistence of forests and grasslands in the same landscape was observed with more frequent fires under the present climatic conditions. This was due to strong positive feedbacks of the huge accumulation of flammable grass biomass on fire intensity promoted by the high productivity of the present mesic conditions. On the other hand, spatio-temporal density dependent processes linked to fire and enhanced by slope at the patch scale, as well as the initial spatial arrangement of vegetation patches affected the rate of forest expansion at the landscape scale. The persistence of coexisting vegetation formations with an inherent asymmetry of competitive interactions was possible when the higher connectivity of the fire-prone patches (grassland) affected negatively the performance of the entire fire-sensitive system (forest). This was possible by overcoming its local densitydependent advantage, or by maintaining it with a low connectivity, which is expected to reduce the rate of coalescence of forest patches in a scenario of predominantly short distance dispersal. Despite the increments in biomass production, stem growth and fecundity that were observed in both grassland and forest, climate change increased the rates of forest expansion over grasslands even in presence of fire, and mainly over the next 90 years. This was attributed to a high photosynthetic advantage of C3-trees over C4-grasses in presence of fire under higher atmospheric CO2 levels. Finally, in the face of the general observed tendency of forest expansion over grasslands, the ancient grasslands have persisted as alternative ecosystem states in forest-grassland mosaics. In this sense, exploring this dynamic coexistence under the concept of alternative stable states have showed to be the most appropriate approach, and the outcomes of this novel perspective may highlight the understanding of the mechanisms behind the long-term coexistence.

Enquanto em regiões temperadas o conhecimento sobre a relação solo-vegetação é consolidado, nos trópicos e subtrópicos é preliminar. É urgente a necessidade de se determinar os fatores abióticos que controlam padrões vegetacionais visando dar suporte a estudos de recuperação e conservação. O presente estudo analisa a relação entre fatores abióticos e vegetação campestre na forma de três artigos científicos (capítulos I, II e III) e um artigo de revisão (capítulo IV). Nos primeiros três artigos, analisou-se a variância da vegetação em diferentes escalas ecológicas; e no artigo de revisão, discutiu-se de forma aplicada a variância de fatores bióticos e abióticos em resposta à degradação. Dessa forma, a presente tese objetivou responder as seguintes questões: (I) Que diferenças podem ser observadas dentro de uma mesma espécie quanto à funcionalidade e suas estratégias de alocação sob diferentes graus de disponibilidade de recursos?; (II) Quão variáveis são as propriedades físicas e químicas do solo em diferentes escalas espaciais; e existem propriedades dos solos que podem explicar com maior precisão a distribuição das espécies em diferentes escalas espaciais? (III) Que porcentagem de variância da vegetação pode ser explicada por propriedades pedológicas e climáticas; e quais características de solo e clima melhor explicam esses padrões de vegetação? No capítulo IV é apresentado um modelo conceitual sobre degradação dos campos e sua aplicação aos campos do Rio Grande do Sul (RS). Para responder as questões acima usei dados ao nível de espécie de campos calcáreos da Alemanha (capítulo I); dados ao nível de comunidade em seis áreas campestres do Rio Grande do Sul, sul do Brasil (capítulos II e III); e através da revisão de literatura relacionada à degradação, quanto à capacidade de recuperação dos campos do RS (capítulo IV). Os resultados evidenciaram que: (I) dentro de espécies ficaram evidentes duas estratégias frente à limitação de recursos, enquanto a resposta dos atributos aos diferentes tratamentos se mostrou constante; (II) a variação dos parâmetros do solo relaciona-se à escala espacial aplicada e a variância da vegetação geralmente responde a diferentes parâmetros de solo em diferentes escalas; (III) 45% da variância da vegetação entre biomas nos campos do RS foi explicada por características pedológicas e climáticas, sendo em grande parte governada pela precipitação anual e a porcentagem de saturação por alumínio do solo; e (IV) o modelo conceitual apresenta variações ao longo de dois eixos (biótico e abiótico) e poderá servir de suporte a estudos de conservação e recuperação de campos tropicais e suptropicais, bem como facilitar a tomada de decisões quanto ao manejo e conservação. Como conclusão geral, verificou-se que a vegetação campestre responde a variações ambientais em diferentes escalas espaciais e pode adotar diferentes estratégias para sobrepor filtros ambientais e processos de degradação. O entendimento da relação entre a vegetação e o meio abiótico é de grande importância para tomada de decisões quanto ao emprego de formas alternativas de manejo e conservação. / Whereas in temperate regions the abiotic-biotic relationship is well-known, in the tropics and subtropics our understanding is still preliminary. There is an urgent need to determine abiotic factors that control vegetation patterns in order to give support to restoration and conservation approaches. The present thesis analyses the relationship between abiotic factors and grassland vegetation in three original research papers (chapters I, II and III) and a review paper (chapter IV). In the first three papers, vegetation variance in response to abiotic factors was analyzed at different ecological scales; and in the fourth, the variance in biotic and abiotic factors in response to degradation process was discussed with a more applied view. Thus in this thesis the aim is to answer the following questions: (I) Which differences can be found in functional plant traits and allocation strategies within species at different levels of water and nutrient availability?; (II) How variable are physical and chemical parameters in different spatial scales; and are there soil parameters that can more accurately explain plant distribution in different spatial scales? (III) How much of RS grassland vegetation variance can be explained by soil and climatic properties; and which climatic and soil properties better explain these vegetation patterns? In chapter IV a conceptual model of grassland degradation is presented and applied to Rio Grande do Sul (RS) grasslands. To address these questions I used species-level data in a calcareous grassland in Germany (chapter I); community-level data in six sites in RS, South Brazilian grasslands (chapter II and III); and a review of literature studies concerning RS grassland degradation and restorability (chapter IV). The results showed that: (I) at a intraspecific level, the study species showed two allocation strategies in relation to resource stress, while the responses of individual traits to the soil treatments were consistent across species; (II) soil parameters variation are related to the measurement scale applied and the vegetation variance often responds to different soil parameters at different scales; (III) climatic and soil properties explained 45% of vegetation variance between biomes in RS grasslands and the main factors controlling its variance are annual precipitation and percent aluminum saturation; and (IV) the conceptual model is displayed as biotic and abiotic changes along the axes and can serve as a general framework to study degradation and restorability of tropical and subtropical grasslands, and further it may facilitate decisions on alternative management and conservation. As a general conclusion, the grassland vegetation responds to changes in the environment in different scales and may use different strategies to overcome environmental selective forces and degradation process. The understanding of this relationship is of high importance to facilitate decisions on alternative management and conservation.

Indivíduos, populações e espécies tendem a usar e selecionar habitats de modo não-aleatório. Consequentemente, a perda e a degradação de habitats geram impactos distintos sobre os organismos dependendo de seus atributos. Os efeitos da perda de habitat são claros – os organismos são eliminados ou desalojados por falta de habitat ou baixo sucesso reprodutivo. As consequências da degradação de habitat são mais sutis, e resultam na incapacidade de um ecossistema sustentar determinadas espécies. Como a perda e a degradação de habitat reduzem a disponibilidade de nichos, espera-se que táxons ecologicamente especializados e com requerimentos estreitos de nicho sejam mais propensos à extinção que generalistas. Organismos que são negativamente afetados por perda e degradação de habitat em geral exibem porte muito grande ou muito pequeno, baixa mobilidade, baixa fecundidade, reduzido recrutamento e estreitos requerimentos de nicho. Campos temperados constituem ambientes particularmente afetados por perda e degradação de habitat. No sudeste da América do Sul, como em muitas outras regiões do planeta, a expansão da agricultura e silvicultura são os principais responsáveis pela perda de habitat campestre. Os remanescentes de vegetação natural são usados para criação de gado, estando sujeitos à degradação pelo sobrepastejo, pisoteio e técnicas de manejo. Avaliar como a perda e degradação de habitat afetam a diversidade de organismos campestres é vital para o desenvolvimento de estratégias de conservação e manejo. A presente tese tem por objetivo investigar como a degradação e perda de habitat induzidas pela pecuária e silvicultura afetam a diversidade e a composição das comunidades de aves. Inicialmente, exploramos as relações entre variáveis de habitat e a composição da comunidade de aves num gradiente de altura da vegetação determinado por pastejo em campos litorâneos do Rio Grande do Sul. Posteriormente, avaliamos como variações no relevo interagem com variáveis de habitat e afetam a diversidade de aves em áreas de pecuária na Campanha gaúcha. Finalmente, avaliamos de que forma a perda de habitat resultante do estabelecimento de plantações industriais de celulose em áreas de campo afeta a composição de comunidades de aves campestres. Nossos resultados demonstram que a degradação de habitat decorrente do manejo de gado em campo nativo afeta a comunidade de aves de forma diferencial. Aves adaptadas a campos ralos ou generalistas tendem a ser beneficiadas pelo pastejo, ao passo que as espécies associadas à vegetação alta e densa são desfavorecidas. As variações na topografia reduzem os impactos da degradação de habitat nos campos. Essas variações interagem com o habitat e afetam de forma diferencial os distintos componentes da diversidade. Por outro lado, a perda de habitat decorrente da silvicultura gera um impacto de maior magnitude, alterando a composição das comunidades de aves e favorecendo aves não-campestres. Nesse contexto, impedir que novas áreas de campo nativo sejam convertidas em plantações de árvores passa a ser imperativo. Embora o manejo do gado aumente a diversidade em nível de paisagem ao criar um mosaico de manchas de vegetação de alturas distintas, maior atenção deve ser dada à manutenção e recuperação de formações densas de herbáceas de grande porte. Isso somente pode ser assegurado através de mudanças no regime do pastejo ou do desenvolvimento de técnicas de manejo alternativas. / Individuals, populations and species tend to select habitats in a non-random way. Consequently, habitat loss and degradation will have different impacts on organisms according to their traits. The effects of habitat loss are straightforward – organisms are eliminated or displaced because of the inexistence of adequate habitat or of low breeding success. Effects of habitat degradation are more subtle and result in the reduction of the capacity of an ecosystem to support some subsets of species. Since habitat loss and degradation reduce niche availability, ecologically specialized taxa with narrow niche requirements are expected to be more extinction prone than habitat generalists. Temperate grasslands have been strongly impacted by habitat loss and degradation. In southeastern South America, the expansion of agriculture and industrial pulpwood plantations are the main sources of habitat loss. Remnants of natural grassland vegetation are used for livestock ranching, being subject to habitat degradation from overgrazing, trampling and inadequate management techniques. The evaluation of how habitat loss and degradation affect the diversity of grassland organisms is vital for the development of management and conservation techniques. The main goal of this thesis is to evaluate how habitat degradation and loss related to cattle ranching and pulpwood plantations affect the diversity and composition of bird communities. We began by exploring the relationship between habitat variables and the composition of the bird community along a gradient of vegetation height determined by grazing in coastal grasslands of the state of Rio Grande do Sul. We then assessed how variations in the relief interact with habitat variables e affect the diversity of birds in rangelands of the Campanha gaúcha. Finally, we evaluated how habitat loss related with grassland afforestation for pulpwood plantations affects the composition of grassland bird communities. Our results demonstrate that habitat degradation resulting from livestock ranching in natural grasslands affects bird communities in a differential way. Birds adapted to stunted grasslands or habitat generalists tend to benefit from grazing, whereas tall-grass specialists are negatively affected. Variations in topography are responsible for reducing the impacts of habitat degradation in grasslands. These variations interact with habitat and have a differential effect on distinct components of diversity. On the other hand, the magnitude of the impact of habitat loss from afforestation is larger, altering the composition of bird communities and favoring a series of non-grassland species. In this sense, protecting remaining grasslands from afforestation is imperative. Although cattle ranching increases diversity at the landscape level by creating a mosaic of vegetation patches of different height, more attention should be given in maintaining and recovering dense formations of tall grassland plants. This can only be achieved by changing grazing regimes or developing alternative management techniques.

Epigeických beetle communities were studied on four agroecosystems with different crops grown. All four agroecosystems were located in the vicinity of Czech Budejovice (South Bohemia). The first agroecosystem is conventionally grown corn. On the second one agroecosystem it was conventionally grown wheat. The third agroecosystem was barley and the fourth was permanent grassland. Individual agroekosystems differed not only in crops but also in agrotechnical operations during the capture. In all agroecosystems was for capture of the material used method of pitfall traps. Subsequently, those types have been studied. Then was studied degree of human impact on the biodiversity of species of different ecological groups found in these locations.Beetle activity was highest in the maize agroecosystem. There was found almost half of all captured individuals. In all agroecosystems was activity affected by management of agrotechnic operations and also by for that year specific weather. All sites were completely dominated by expansive species (E - types of deforested habitats strongly influenced by human activities)

In connection with the growing area of permanent grasslands in the Czech Republic, their productive and, above all, non-productive importance is at the forefront. In addition to forage production, meadow stands represent an important component of the environment in terms of biodiversity conservation. The aim of this diploma thesis was to monitor the influence of organic fertilization on land in the cadastral of Cekov and Kařez. Observations were carried out on unheated and organically fertilized localities in 2017. Higher botanical diversity showed unheated land, where the herbal component and clover predominated. There was a higher proportion of grass on the fertilized land. In terms of grassland quality, fertilized plots were best assessed. The data analyzed were statistically evaluated.

Permanent grassland is a complex of legumes, herbs, and grasses. They are an important plant component of the biosphere. They provide wide range of productive and non-productive functions. Climbing legumes are valuable species in grasslands. They are involved in higher quality of fresh matter and hay. The aim of this diploma thesis is to assess the influence of climbing legumes on the presence and coverage of other higher plant species in grassland, the height and productivity of vegetation in selected localities in the Prachatice district in 2017. The occurrence of legumes (climbing and non-climbing) has a significant impact on other species in the grassland community. The reason is the ability to fix aerial nitrogen and support grass species that require a good nitrogen supply. The obtained data were statistically processed.